Sociology of Arts II PDF

Sociology of Arts II: Art Fields 1. The Field Theory of Pierre Bourdieu: Small- & large-scale production Marxist art sociology - Social structures determine or restrict human behaviour - notion of artistic genius is false - Janet Wolff: art is socially produced, not the product of single geni...

Sociology of Arts II: Art Fields 1. The Field Theory of Pierre Bourdieu: Small- & large-scale production Marxist art sociology - Social structures determine or restrict human behaviour - notion of artistic genius is false - Janet Wolff: art is socially produced, not the product of single genius producer (rather than artist) against Kant: art works are not universal but dependent on historical social circumstances aesthetic features of works and how these are interpreted – also depend on social circumstance Pierre Bourdieu’s Field Theory - Bourdieu’s position in sociology/ philosophy The social mechanisms that construct the value of a work of art operating on the pre-reflexive or subconscious level = sociology of unmasking - Bourdieu’s methodology: Genetic Structuralism combines the study of Existentialism (focus on individual agency) and Structuralism (focus on societal structures): Individual/Subjective: Freedom, personal agency, and apparent chaos Social/Collective: Rules, societal order, and underlying patterns Psychoanalysis: Discovers the unconscious as the main influence on human behaviour Research involves: Theory & Empirical Studies: Observing and analyzing real-world phenomena - Core concepts: Habitus and Field Habitus: The internalization of exteriority & the exteriorization of the inferiority = double movement shaped by socialization (primary, secondary, tertiary) and feels “natural” or like “second nature” (universal) Habitus defines the possibilities to occupy a certain position in a certain field in society (art, economy,…) & defines the field structure  Field: Objective whole of social relations between the boarders of collective recognized subject (e.g. art, contemporary dance) with its own laws & logic Society = hierarchical structure of social fields with the same underlying power structure - The structure of the field: 4 Basic Field Positions/ Capitals: Economic: money Cultural: upbringing & education Social: connections to „the right“ agents Symbolic: regognition by „the right“ agent Positions are defined by power dynamics, especially the struggle between orthodoxy (traditional powers)and heterodoxy (challengers) & the struggle between autonomy and heteronomy Short-Term vs. Long-Term Production Cycle: Short-term: Focused on immediate rewards, often driven by economic capital Long-term: Prioritizes symbolic capital, requiring belief & investment in an artist's or art's value over time Mediators, like “cultural bankers,” help convert symbolic capital into economic capital over time Relation to Audience: Audience perception is shaped by collective constructs (critics, educators, institutions) The belief in an artist’s value emerges from a “circle of belief,” involving the audience & art-world intermediaries - Artistic freedom (from field perspective) Artistic Freedom is not absolute; it is shaped by field dynamics Entry into a field requires cultural capital (education, socialization) Success involves strategic behavior, including: Accumulating symbolic capital & Converting symbolic capital into economic capital through recognized pathways The artist’s trajectory is shaped by: Collective constructs (e.g., schools, critics, institutions) Predefined field structures that guide and limit possibilities  Key Insight: Artistic freedom is constrained by the rules of the field and external pressures, such as politics or economy. 2.Critiques & further developments of Bourdieu’s Field Theory National fields of cultural production - Globalisation: are fields still national? - Theoretical answer: agents in the field determine its borders, so if international agent become relevant, they are, if not, they are not —> but that still implies national fields! Global field: Global field/market does not exist because of cultural exemptions to free trade treaties International field (UNESCO, Nobel Prize for literature): Dependent on nation states: they need to ratify the treaties  Supranational field (EU): Dependent on nation states that ratifies treaties although transnational laws supersede national ones Transnational field (without intervention of nation states): Francophone field: agents in Wallonia, Québec & Africa are subsidiary to agents in France (=theoretical answer) Creative Industries: What about the heteronomous pole? - Alternative vs. Mainstream production = autonomous vs. Heteronomous pole Alternative= against mainstream (just as Bourdieu defines cultural capital) - Corporatisation Large cooperations engage in highly prestigious art through subsidiaries (independents) Horizontal Integration Vertical Integration - Digitalisation: algorithms as non-human intermediaries Early recommendation services were based on expert assessment of music, but nowadays algorithms assess characteristics of cultural products &consumer behaviour →infomediaries Algorithms are not neutral: designed with commercial intentions in mind rather than cultural→ opacity and surveillance of taste in how symbolic capital is awarded - Market segmentation Large cooperations also want to reach highly educated/ wealthy audiences: quality television - Playing both sides of the field Valuation of Art Works The Admiration of Art ➔ Field theory ignores important stuff 3.Pragmatic value sociology - People legitimise their actions & evaluate those of other and objects based on values → value regime (‘world’ with coherent set of values) - Tensions between actors can be explained based on the use of different value regimes in the same social situation Seven value regimes (or worlds -cités) - Inspired regime: Inspiration, novelty, the divine - Domestic regime: Family, seniority, tradition - Fame regime: Public opinion, others’ appraisal - Civic regime : General interest, social contract - Industrial regime: Efficiency, professionalism - Market regime: Competition, pursuit of profit - Connectionist regime(Project city regime): Networking, projects - Green regime: Ecology, sustainability Key features of a value regime 1. Common superior principle (central values) 2. Subjects (protagonists) & relations between people ‘great persons’ vis à vis ‘small persons’: worthiness of actors depends on whether or not they are able (or willing) to follow values 3. Objects 4. Investments & sacrifices to gain grandeur in a regime (action) 5. Test = evaluation of a social situation specific types of test for each regime with specific type of evidence for ‘grandeur’ 6. Threats and deconstructive practices Struggle over which type of test is appropriate in a social situation is a key driver of social change Relations between regimes - All value regimes are potentially present in every social situation, i.e. they occur simultaneously & are not mutually exclusive... -... and no single set of evaluative criteria can account for all possible justifications… -... but in certain situations, some regimes are more dominant than others Compromises and Conflicts - Values can co-operate: compromise (or composite object) e.g. stardom: fame and market e.g. artistic renown: fame and inspired e.g. creative industry: inspired and industrial (and market?) e.g. entertainment: inspiration and market e.g. nationalism: inspiration and civic e.g. welfare-state: between civic, industrial and market -... and conflict: Conflicts are resolved by finding a ‘higher common principle Some “difficult” regimes - Inspired regime ephemeral, cannot be pinned down (the divine, the artistic whim) based on Romantic notion of artistic genius (which sociologists usually dismiss) strongly opposed to industrial logic of standardisation and (measuring) instruments - Domestic regime domes = house (not: domistic regime / domistieke regime) honour, ancestry, being prudent, keeping secrets, etiquettes history, cultural heritage - Civic regime populated by collective personae (union, representative) focus on general interest/general will which is expressed in elections, voting, ballots (which require fair procedures - Market regime money is NOT the goal, profit is the proof of success when art becomes priceless this stops the market - Connectionist regime (Project city) fits well with project-based work in modern economy : ‘gig’ economy combines features from inspired regime (enthusiasm, energy), market (competition) and industrial (knowledge) regimes real test: adaptability → moving from one project to the next (or: people trust you enough so they ask you) Comparison to Bourdieu - Value regimes imply focusing on act of position taking rather than on structure of the field - Although agents may not possess certain capitals, they may still lay claim to them e.g., commercial agents talking about quality of musical e.g., ‘playing both sides of the field’, i.e., using strategies from both alternative and mainstream production - There may be more than one route through the field industrial genres / artists may rise in legitimacy artists may work in both subsidised and commercial production (theatre, film) and use the capital from the one sub field in the other Application of value regimes Examples of research that applies the seven value regimes: - Discourse analysis: which values are represented in texts? (word count) - Policy legitimisations: which values are promoted in cultural policies? Bildung: inspiration + civic Creative economy: market + fame + inspiration  Social inclusion: civic + inspiration - Predicting conflicts: Inspiration versus industry Inspiration versus market Not so much the question of which regimes occur...... but how they occur Valuation studies - Looking at acts of valuating: evaluating and valorising (making things more valuable) - Studying processes of valuing, not values - Focus: in the making, not in retrospect or abstract - Not applying the seven regimes, but exploratively finding out which values arise in concrete practices (bottom up) The Admiration of Art - Nathalie Heinich PhD in 1981 (with Bourdieu) on constitution of field of visual art →very close to field theory Later on: unease with the fact that field theory ignores why we love certain works so much Van Gogh effect - During lifetime little recognition... -... but became artistic hero: misrecognised artist - in retrospect applied to other artists as well (Mozart, Rembrandt) - Empirical approach: how do various agents in art field describe the work →over time more and more appreciation Singular regime - Not what is generic about art works / artists explains their biography... -... but what is specific about them: their singularity - or: why people admire them Singular regime functions next to collective logics that Bourdieu and Becker foreground in the sociological analysis of ar Summary - Unconsciousness of social agents is an (empirical) problem. Why not take their arguments seriously? - Value regimes are helpful in ‘unpacking’ what goes on in particular situations: more nuanced set of values than Bourdieu’s opposition of culture and economy - Heinich: what is specific about art works (their aesthetics) and why people love them should be part of the sociological analysis of art, particularly since modern art 4.Art World Theory of Howard Becker: Art as collective action Origins of Interpretative value sociology - Anti-positivism: no general laws that „govern “society - Verstehende Soziologie: Interpretative understanding of social interactions - Weber: role of cultural understanding & beliefs on economy —> link between Protestantism & capitalism - (American) pragmatism: truth is something that is made by social circumstances Symbolic interactionism - How do individuals communicate & interact to make social life meaningful? Descriptive approach, micro-level studies No „grand theory “á la Bourdieu - Cultural aspects of social behaviour (use of language & symbols) guide social interactions - In contrast to functionalism & critical sociology, which assume that people ‘s group membership determine their behaviour (class, family, etc.), symbolic interactionism focuses on how people ‘s ideas & values shape their behaviour „Art as collective action “ - Becker ‘s fundamental argument: art is an inherently collective activity - A collective activity because: Production of art involves several people Art is the outcome of a collective process of „giving meaning “ Art is identified by the art world (institutionalist definition of art) Against the notion of creative genius - Becker ‘s point is in direct opposition to ideas about extraordinary individuals (natural abilities & inborn talent as sole explanation) Art as a collective action ≠ individual ‘genius’ Artistic genius is a social construct - It comes about because of interactions with others: Upbringing Schooling Reviews by critics Reception by audiences  - But rather than looking at underlying social forces (collective believe) Becker focuses on how in social interactions meaning is created Elements in art making - Getting an idea - Having materials, equipment, time, and money - Creating a product (visible, tangible, audible) - Being helped (with supportive activities such as cleaning) - Distributing the production - Receiving a response from an audience - Developing and maintaining the purpose of the production - Educating oneself within an aesthetic system - Relating to the surrounding society and its civic order → These elements can be combined in multiple ways → They always involve more people than only ‘the artis Division of labour - Production process organizing is based on division of labour, this labour is not pre-given, but socially constructed Core & support personnel - Core personell: positions where you have decision-making power about production of art works - Support personnel: positions without decision-making that assist the core personell, but can still influence the prouction Conventional ways of working together determine which positions are closer to core & that the artist is the core The artist is produced - An artist is at the centre of a network of collaborations - The artist s thus not (necessarily) someone who happens to possess special abilities - The artist is produced by a position at the core of the network Reputation is created - The meaning & value of a pice of work is created by its audience & that simultaneously creates the reputation of the artist - So, a work & an artist are mutually dependent on each other – and both are produced b the audience Conventions Explicit & implicit agreements that define - What a work of art is (size, length, scope, etc.) This means that artworks that do not follow the conventions are less likely to be performed or exhibited - How the production is organized This means that rules for collaborations do not need to be invented from scratch in every new production - Conventions create possibilities & are at the same time delimiting —>different artists handle conventions differently Types of Artists - Integrated professionals Insiders who know an art world & its conventions very well, manage to balance between the conventional & newness - Maverick Reject an art wold & work consciously outside conventions - Folk artists Hyper conventional, keep tradition alive - Naïve artists Work outside art worlds, have no awareness of conventions Summary : What does Art World Theory tell us? - Art ≠ individual genius but produced by collectives (cf. Bourdieu) - Art worlds are extremely complex, and different for each art form (or even location) →individuals perform ‘bundles of tasks’ - Collective activity is facilitated through conventional ways of doing (cf. Bourdieu’s doxa) - Artists have different ways of relating to the conventions - Core personnel and support personnel 5.Actor-Network Theory of Antoine Hennion: Theorising Through Art The problem of „the object “ - Traditionally, art sociology „ignores “the (art) objects - Humanities (hermeneutics) vs. Sociology (art is effect of social relations) - The same goes for science: sociology of science does not study the content of scientific theories/ methods Traditional view of science: - Truth exists out here, irrespective of observation: methods/ instruments/ technologies are neutral tools to get at the truth - Constructivist approach: truth is actively created through our observations of nature - STS: interaction of people & objects (technologies) - Actor-Network theory: interactions between objects & people —> agency of objects Problematic network metaphor - Actor- Network theory ≠ social network analysis - In ANT: Networks are not seen from outside (focus on how its created, not its actual shape) Networks include non-humans Networks are not stable - Actor: Anything that has effects Creation is distributed, but often one person is singled out as the hero - Network: Relational: meaning derives from relations to other elements in the network To interest (necessary to form a network): associations have to be made - Theory: The point is not to purify the repertoire, but to enrich it - appreciating sensitivity No overarching explanatory framework The aim is to trace effects, especially unexpected ones Material Semiotics (alternative title for ANT) - Semiotics: relations that carry meaning (cf. Becker) - Material: physical stuff →exerts influence on the relations / meanings - Implies studying the effects of various elements while at the same time paying attention to how these elements are constructed Why ANT in sociology of art? - Addressing artworks (as active) And doing so in a post- critical way (vs. Bourdieu) Criticising Bourdieu for ignoring artworks (reductionism)  Artworks as more than a reflection of social power struggles, but as actively doing something to us Taste as performance, a discovery, not preset, not just confirming habitus - Addressing practicalities (seeing creativity as distributed) Turn to materials, devices, technologies : non-human actors (Becker +) Criticising Bourdieu for taking away creation from artists (portraying creation as created by society) Suggesting instead to see creativity as „widely distributed “ Multiple mediations = collectives of humans (á la Becker) + also material, devices, technologies Asks: How are artworks produced, also materially? Which networks (of people & objects – technologies) are developed to produce, tribute & consume art works? - Empirical analyses (tracing effects) Sensitizing concepts (attuning theories to the world) (vs. grand theory - situated knowledge) Agent (actor) = anyone or anything that exerts an influence ➔ “Follow the actor” Power of actor is based in the heterogeneous network they have built Against Bourdieu: ▪ No unmasking, take agents seriously, room for personal attachments ▪ No preconceived or hypothetical assumptions (e.g. there are field positions and behaviour is strategic) ▪ Theorizing from empirical examples (by the way, Bourdieu would not be against that) In art: no ontological status of the art object, it changes with each translati on ANT in sociology of art Focusing on: - Technologies - Materialities - Mediations - Attachments - Co-production Following processes in production & uses Empirical Focus - Not intrinsic meaning of art works  - But myriad of ways in which woks come to have meaning in different contexts - Focu on heterogeneous networks Co-production - We are produced by using cultural objects & objects are produced by our use Mediations - changes that products go through - not a neutral channel, but an alteration - Anything that changes the product Attachments - The connections we make to objects, let them influence us - —>objects thus become active Against Frankfurt School - No ontological status of object - Technological reproduction of work simply is next Mediation hat’s work goes though (no loss of „aura “) - Technologies are at the heart of art making & consuming Sociology with art - Commissioning work by artist - Collaborating its artists - Research in artistic formats Limitations - Symmetry between humans & non-humans as agents - Apolitical: no attention to colonialism & capitalism, nor class, gender, race - Not a real & consistent theory - Applying the same theory everywhere - Where do networks end? 7. Evaluation of Art Exam case study: „Rejects: The Show for Artists Rebuffed by the Royal Academy “ Content summary Royal Academy (RA) Summer Exhibition: Selected 1,700 artworks for display but rejected nearly 10 times as many Criticized for its selection; deemed “tepid, polite, and pointless” by art critics The Rejects Show: Organized by gallerist Shona Bland to showcase works rejected by the RA Inspired by artists sharing their rejection stories and works on Instagram Features a variety of art forms, including homoerotic screen prints, underwater photography, and AI-driven textile art Artists’ Perspectives: Hannah Pratt: o Rejected four or five times by the RA o Creates textile art inspired by science and AI, such as her "Colour of Starlight" series o Views rejection as part of the artistic journey but aspires to be part of the RA exhibition Craig Keenan: o Works with cyanotypes (blue-and-white photographic prints) o Experienced both acceptance and rejection by the RA o Acknowledges rejection as a normal part of the artistic process Shona Bland’s Motivation: Personal experiences of rejection in the art world due to lacking an art history degree Established her gallery, ArtFriend, as an inclusive space for artists and art lovers outside mainstream elitism Key Themes: Rejection is framed as a natural and potentially positive part of artistic development Alternative exhibitions like the Rejects show challenge traditional hierarchies in the art world Highlights the contrast between established institutions (RA) and grassroots, inclusive initiatives Cultural and Social Commentary: Raises questions about artistic value, gatekeeping, and the role of inclusivity in the art world Undermines the taboo around rejection, celebrating the resilience and innovation of overlooked artists Relation to the concepts/theories 1. The Field Theory of Pierre Bourdieu Small- and Large-scale Production: o The RA Summer Exhibition represents a large-scale production, catering to established norms and the mainstream audience, emphasizing symbolic and economic capital o The Rejects show highlights small-scale production, showcasing works dismissed by the establishment but still valued by an alternative field seeking symbolic capital over immediate financial gain Habitus and Field: o The artists’ "habitus" shapes their behavior in submitting to the RA and dealing with rejection. Their perseverance and the creation of an alternative show reflect the "rules of the field" where symbolic recognition is key o The RA embodies orthodoxy, while the Rejects show represents heterodoxy, challenging established norms Critiques and Further Developments: o The rejection of digitalized AI-based art by artists like Hannah Pratt reflects the tension between traditional artistic values and newer methods, such as AI, within a potentially globalized field 2. Pragmatic Value Sociology Value Regimes: o Market Regime: The RA’s prestige is linked to its ability to attract wealthy collectors and maintain market dominance o Inspired Regime: Rejects show focuses on artistic authenticity, inspiration & creative freedom o Civic Regime: Shona Bland's gallery reflects a democratic ethos, making art accessible and combating exclusivity Compromises and Conflicts: o The Rejects show embodies a compromise between fame (gaining public attention) and inspiration(showcasing personal, innovative works) 3. Art World Theory of Howard Becker Art as Collective Action: o The Rejects show demonstrates the collective nature of art. Shona Bland, artists, and even audiences collaboratively redefine what is considered valuable Division of Labor: o The organization of the Rejects show highlights the interplay between core personnel (curators like Bland) and support personnel (artists, technicians, etc.) Reputation and Conventions: o The RA defines conventions of "acceptable" art, but the Rejects show challenges these, illustrating Becker's idea that conventions can also restrict creativity 4. Actor-Network Theory of Antoine Hennion Mediations and Attachments: o The Rejects show explores how objects (artworks) gain meaning through rejection and eventual appreciation in alternative contexts o Technologies like AI, mentioned by artists like Hannah Pratt, become active participants in the artistic process, reflecting distributed creativity Relational Network: o Bland’s initiative reflects the dynamic network of interactions between artists, gallerists, media, and audiences Empirical Focus: o By celebrating rejection, the show reshapes the social and material context of art, challenging traditional gatekeeping 5. Evaluation of Art Singular Regime: o Works in the Rejects show are admired for their unique stories and aesthetics, not just their adherence to mainstream conventions Audience and Meaning: o The Rejects show changes the perception of rejected works, elevating their value and reconfiguring their meaning within the art world Summary The case study of the Rejects show serves as a practical lens to understand and apply these frameworks. Each theory highlights different aspects: Bourdieu emphasizes the power dynamics and symbolic struggles in the art field. Becker underscores the collective effort and conventions. Pragmatic sociology reveals the multiplicity of value systems. Hennion explores the relational and material dynamics of artworks and their networks. Art evaluation theories highlight the shifting criteria for admiration and value.