Sociology Exam Paper PDF

Crash course 1-3 25 November 2024 22:05 Sociology Paradigms: Compact Study Notes What are Paradigms? Definition: A framework of theories and concepts that shapes our perspective on different topics. In Sociology: ○ Theoretical Paradigms help sociologists understand and...

Crash course 1-3 25 November 2024 22:05 Sociology Paradigms: Compact Study Notes What are Paradigms? Definition: A framework of theories and concepts that shapes our perspective on different topics. In Sociology: ○ Theoretical Paradigms help sociologists understand and interpret raw facts. ○ Perspectives shape the questions asked at Macro (large-scale) and Micro (small- scale) levels. 1. Structural Functionalism Origin: Emile Durkheim. ○ Society functions like an organism, with different parts working together for stability. ○ Issues are viewed as illnesses disrupting societal health. Key Concepts: ○ Social Structures: Framework of society. ○ Social Functions: ▪ Manifest Functions: Obvious, intended effects of a structure. ▪ Latent Functions: Unintended, hidden effects. ○ Social Dysfunctions: Patterns disrupting society’s smooth functioning. Limitation: ○ Struggles to address societal changes effectively. ○ Leads to Conflict Theory for explaining change. 2. Conflict Theory Focus: Society as groups competing over scarce resources. Change: Driven by ongoing struggles between these groups. Key Types of Conflicts: ○ Class Conflict (Karl Marx): Capitalists vs. the working class. ○ Race Conflict (W.E.B. Du Bois): Inequalities between racial groups. ○ Gender Conflict: Inequalities between men and women. 3. Symbolic Interactionism Focus: Micro-level interactions and meanings people create in everyday life. Origin: Max Weber. ○ Emphasizes individual experiences and shared realities through interactions. ○ Example: Understanding a handshake as a shared social symbol. Key Difference: Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory focus on Macro perspectives. Symbolic Interactionism focuses on Micro perspectives. Tip: Focus on the paradigm suited for the scale (Macro or Micro) of your sociological question! Sociology Page 1  Soc. Crash Course 4-5-6-7 02 October 2024 15:17 Crash Course 4: Research Methods Crash Course 6: Karl Marx & Conflict Theory Research Methods: Systematic plan for gathering and analyzing observations. Deciding the Question: Define a clear concept for both researcher and audience. Marx: Studied labor and human freedom. Hypothesis: A statement of possible relationship between two variables. ○ Labor: Essential for survival; people must cooperate to adapt. ○ Variable: Something with different values. ○ Operationalize: Define and measure the variable accurately. Historical Materialism: Society's change based on material realities and economic structures. ○ Independent Variable: The factor influencing change. → ○ Dependent Variable: The factor affected by change. Superstructure: Social institutions (politics, culture) built on the economic base. ○ Correlation ≠ Causation: Just because two variables move together doesn’t mean one causes the other. Data Collection: Modes of Production: ○ Experiments: Test hypothesis with experimental and control groups. ○ Forces of Production: Material and technical aspects of the economy. ○ Surveys: Prepared questions for responses, sampling the population. ○ Relations of Production: How people organize labor. ○ Participant Observation: Researchers join the group in a less controlled setting. Economic Classes: ○ Existing Resources: Using pre-existing data. Proletariat: Working class, sells labor. Answer for the Question: → Bourgeoisie: Capitalists, control means of production. ○ Inductive: Observations → Theory → Data → World. ○ Deductive: Theory → Hypothesis → Test → Theory. ○ Surplus Value: Profit from exploitation of labor. Crash Course 5: Suicide and Society (Durkheim) Crises of Overproduction: Contradiction between production and labor leads to economic crises. ○ Class Conflict: Solution via revolution. Émile Durkheim: Believed sociology could prescribe solutions like medicine for society. Antonio Gramsci: Focused on Hegemony—dominant ideas that maintain power. Conflict Theory: Applied to race, gender, and other social inequalities, driven by power struggles. Suicide: Durkheim’s first sociological study using statistical methods. Social Facts: External, coercive societal norms and systems that influence individuals. Crash Course 7: W.E.B. Du Bois & Race Conflict Common Consciousness: Collective beliefs and values in a society. Social Dysfunction: A problem disrupting societal function (e.g., lack of social integration). Du Bois: Key figure in race studies, highlighting systemic racial inequality. ○ Double Consciousness: The internal conflict African Americans feel, seeing themselves Social Integration: Understanding one’s place in society. through a prejudiced society’s lens. Solution: Strengthening social organizations. ○ Race Conflict Theory: Society structured by racial tensions due to unequal resources and power. ○ Du Bois’ work laid the foundation for civil rights movements and continues to influence discussions on race and inequality. Sociology Page 2 Soc crash course 8-9-10-11 01 November 2024 23:23 Gender Conflict in Sociology Max Weber and Modernity Historical Exclusion: Women were excluded from academia until the 20th century. 1. Transition to From traditionalism to rational thought. Gender-Conflict Theory: Focuses on how societal structures perpetuate gender inequality, challenging traditional Modernity: functionalist views. 2. Rationalization: Adoption of rational methods like calculability and Harriet Martineau methodical behavior. Pioneer: Made sociology accessible through works like Illustrations on Political Economy. 3. Religion’s Role: Protestant Reformation and Calvinism promoted Legacy: Critiqued U.S. values in Society in America and introduced sampling and cross-cultural studies, gaining work ethic. feminist recognition in the 1970s. → 4. Bureaucracy: Structured roles and impersonal interactions (e.g., DMV). Waves of Feminism 5. Legitimacy in Types of authority—traditional, legal-rational, First Wave: Focused on suffrage (e.g., Elizabeth Cady Stanton). States: charismatic. 1. Second Wave: Addressed workplace and reproductive rights (e.g., Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan). 6. Social Stratification: Class, power, and status define inequality. Third Wave: Expanded to race and class (e.g., bell hooks). 7. Concerns: Fear of rationalization’s loss of individual meaning ("iron cage"). Intersectionality Definition: Coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, examines Summary: Weber explored rationalization, bureaucracy, social stratification, and how overlapping identities (race, class, gender) shape unique experiences of disadvantage. concerns about its effects on freedom. Summary: Martineau pioneered feminist sociology, with feminism evolving through three waves. Intersectionality deepens the understanding of gender. Culture and Crossing the Street Culture: Includes material (objects) and non-material (values) elements. Understanding Cultures Culture: Norms, symbols, and language. Social class shapes culture, with distinctions Material Culture: Tangible items like street signs. between "low" and "high" culture. Non-Material Culture: Intangible aspects like customs. Mainstream vs. Subcultures: Mainstream aligns with societal ideals, subcultures represent distinct groups. Cultural Differences: Western individualism vs. Eastern collectivism. Norms: Folkways (informal), mores (formal), taboos Cultural Melting Pot: U.S. blending vs. multicultural preservation. (prohibited). Language: Shapes cultural perceptions (Sapir-Whorf Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by one’s own. hypothesis). Counter-Cultures: Oppose mainstream norms (e.g., civil rights movements). Sociological Culture influences actions and societal structures. Perspective: Cultural Change: Through inventions and diffusion. Summary: Culture shapes life through norms, values, and language, influencing Globalization: Overlapping cultures impact social dynamics. societal structures. Summary: Culture, subcultures, and cultural change shape societal complexities, emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural dynamics. Sociology Page 3 Soc crash course 12 24 October 2024 14:07 Evolution of Human Societies (Gerhard Lenski) 1. Society: A group sharing culture and territory. 2. Sociocultural Evolution: Societies evolve through new technologies, changing social organization. Types of Societies: Hunting and Small, nomadic, low inequality, focused on survival. Gathering: Horticultural & Domestication of plants/animals leads to surplus, specialization, and Pastoral: increased inequality. Agrarian: Advanced farming (~5,000 years ago), larger populations, greater → inequality, institutional growth. Industrial: Machine-powered production (1750), urbanization, reduced family roles, public institutions grow. Postindustrial: Shift to information/services, tech/finance wealth, increased global inequality. Sociologists on Social Change: Marx: Economic change requires class struggle and revolution, inequality grows in advanced societies. Weber: Ideas and rationalization (not just tech) drive change, especially from agrarian to industrial. Durkheim: Society held by Mechanical Solidarity (simple) vs. Organic Solidarity (complex, specialized). Key Points: Technology advances society but increases inequality. Sociocultural evolution brings both benefits (surplus, specialization) and harms (pollution, conflict). Marx, Weber, and Durkheim offer different views on social change, contributing to a broader sociological understanding. Sociology Page 4 Soc crash course 13-14-15-16 01 November 2024 23:31 Study Notes on Social Development Study Notes: Social Interaction and Roles Nature vs. Nurture: Social Interaction: Nature: Innate instincts (e.g., reflexes). Actions and reactions guided by social structure. Nurture: Social and environmental influences. Classroom Dynamics: Defined roles (teacher vs. student) and expectations. Socialization: Developing personality and understanding society through interactions. Status and Role Concepts: Lack of socialization harms emotional and cognitive growth. Status: Ascribed or achieved position. Case Study - Anna: → Master Status: Dominant status affecting identity. Isolated at 5, had mental development of a 2-year-old. Died at 10, highlighting social interaction's importance. Roles: Behaviors tied to statuses, including role conflict/strain. Development Theories: Social Reality: Freud: Id, Ego, Superego. Thomas Theorem: Perceptions shape reality. Piaget: Cognitive stages: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational. Impression Management: Managing self-presentation. Kohlberg: Moral stages: Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional. Dramaturgical Analysis (Goffman): → Gilligan: Gender differences in moral reasoning. Social interaction as performances (frontstage/backstage). Mead: Self-development through interaction (Imitation, Play, Game, Generalized Other). Summary: Erikson: Eight stages, each with a key challenge (e.g., autonomy). Roles and statuses influence social interactions and behavior. Erikson: Stage Age Range Conflict Virtue Trust vs. Mistrust 0–1 year Hope Hope Study Notes: Social Groups and Dynamics Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1–3 years Will Will Social Groups: Group: Shared interests/identity; Aggregate: Random groupings (e.g., at a station); Category: Similar Initiative vs. Guilt 3–6 years Purpose Purpose characteristics (e.g., racial groups). Industry vs. Inferiority 6–12 years Competence Competence Types of Social Groups: Identity vs. Role Confusion 12–18 years Fidelity Fidelity 1. Primary Groups: Close-knit, emotional (e.g., family). Intimacy vs. Isolation 18–40 years Love Love → 2. Secondary Groups: Larger, goal-focused (e.g., workplace). Generativity vs. Stagnation 40–65 years Care Care 3. Involuntary Groups: Assigned membership (e.g., prisoners). Integrity vs. Despair 65+ years Wisdom Wisdom Group Dynamics: Leadership: Instrumental (goal-focused) vs. Expressive (wellbeing). Leadership Styles: Authoritarian, Democratic, Laissez-Faire. Conclusion: Socialization shapes identity and adulthood. Conformity and Influence: Groups influence behavior (e.g., Milgram Experiment, Groupthink). Reference Groups: Study Notes on Socialization In-Groups: Groups we identify with; Out-Groups: Groups we oppose. Definition: Impact of Group Size: Lifelong process of developing personality and learning societal values. Larger groups: Stable but impersonal; smaller groups: Intimate but less stable. Key Concepts: Primary Socialization: Family-based learning of values. Social Networks: Cultural Capital: Non-financial assets aiding success (e.g., education). Weak ties can benefit individuals in larger networks. Forms of Socialization: Gender, Race, Class, and Anticipatory Socialization shape behavior. Conclusion: Secondary Socialization: Occurs outside the home (e.g., schools). Groups shape identity and behavior. Schools and Hidden Curriculum: Teach norms (e.g., competition, diversity). Peer Influence: Peer groups shape behaviors. Media's Role: Influences attitudes (e.g., educational vs. cautionary). Total Institutions: Resocialization (e.g., prisons). Conclusion: Socialization shapes identity through various institutions. Sociology Page 5 Soc crash course 17-18 14 November 2024 14:11 Study Notes: Social Deviance Study Notes: Formal Organizations & Rationalization Deviance: Behavior that violates societal norms (e.g., crime, veganism); socially constructed, Formal Organizations: Groups created to achieve goals (e.g., IRS, Google). not inherently negative. Types: ○ Utilitarian: Business/schools. Key Concepts: ○ Normative: Voluntary with moral goals (e.g., Red Cross). ○ Norms & Deviance: Defined by social judgment, not statistics. ○ Coercive: Involuntary (e.g., prisons). ○ Social Control: Regulates behavior via sanctions (positive and negative). Historical Perspective: Formal organizations have existed since ancient times, focusing on efficiency. Types of Norms: Informal Norms (Folkways): Mild, like strange looks. Bureaucracies (Max Weber’s Traits): → ○ Specialization, hierarchy, formal communication, technical competence, impersonality, Formal Norms: Codified laws, like legal sanctions. rules/regulations. Theories: Bureaucratic Problems: ○ Biological: Features (Lombroso), body types (Sheldon); criticized for ignoring social ○ Inefficiency, bureaucratic ritualism, oligarchy, alienation. context. ○ Psychological: Impulse control (Containment Theory); supports twin studies. Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor): Task systematization for efficiency; not suited for ○ Sociological: creativity. Cultural Relativity: Deviance depends on context. Organizational Challenges: External factors (tech, politics), discrimination, and economic shifts (industrial to postindustrial). → Labeling Theory: Labels lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. Modern Changes: Emphasis on creativity, flexibility, and flattened hierarchies in knowledge -based Social Power: Norms protect elite interests (Marx). jobs. McDonaldization (George Ritzer): Efficiency, predictability, control; limits individuality and judgment. Conclusion: Deviance is socially constructed, shaped by power dynamics, and better Key Takeaways: Formal organizations and rationalization shape but can limit efficiency and understood through sociological theories. humanity; bureaucracies balance efficiency with alienation. Sociology Page 6 19-20 21 November 2024 14:09 Study Card: Theories of Deviance in Sociology Study Notes: Crime and the Criminal Justice System 1. Deviance: Behavior that violates social norms. Deviants can vary widely (e.g., criminals vs. pacifists). 1. Nature of Crime: ○ Crimes Against Person: Murder, assault, rape, robbery. 2. Sociological Perspectives: ○ Crimes Against Property: Burglary, theft, arson. ○ Structural Functionalism (Durkheim): ○ Victimless Crimes: Drug use, prostitution, gambling. ▪ Deviance serves 4 functions: defines norms, clarifies moral boundaries, promotes social solidarity, and encourages change. 2. Crime Statistics: ○ 1.2 million violent crimes and 8 million property crimes (2015). ○ Robert Merton’s Strain Theory: ○ 47% of violent and 35% of property crimes underreported. ▪ Deviance arises when society fails to provide means for achieving cultural goals (e.g., financial success). 3. Demographics of Crime: ▪ Adaptations: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion. ○ Young (15-24) account for 31.8% of arrests. ○ Symbolic Interactionism: ○ Men: 62% of property, 80% of violent crime arrests. ▪ Labeling Theory: Deviance depends on societal labels (Primary/Secondary Deviance, Stigma). ○ African Americans: 26.6% of arrests, 13.3% of the population. ▪ Differential Association: Deviance is learned from others. ▪ Control Theory: Deviance prevented by self-control. 4. Overcriminalization: ○ Conflict Theory: ○ Racial disparities: People of color face higher arrest rates, particularly for drugs. ▪ Deviance reflects power dynamics; powerful define norms to maintain control (e.g., capitalist interests). 5. Policing: ○ Arrest decisions influenced by crime severity, suspect behavior, and race. 3. Key Takeaways: 6. Criminal Justice System: ○ Functionalism: Deviance serves societal functions. ○ Police: Arrests influenced by race and judgment. ○ Symbolic Interactionism: Deviance is learned and labeled. ○ Courts: Wealthy can afford bail; poor face overworked public defenders and pressure for plea ○ Conflict Theory: Deviance is linked to social inequality. bargains. 7. Mass Incarceration: ○ U.S. has 2.3 million incarcerated (25% of global total), 67% are non-white. 8. Tough-on-Crime Policies: ○ Punishment Approaches: Retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation (limited resources for reform). 9. Consequences of Incarceration: ○ Strains on families, limited post-release employment, and high recidivism (67.8% re-arrested). Sociology Page 7  38-39 21 November 2024 14:14 38: Family Formation & Trends 39: Religion in Sociology 1. Family Formation: Religion: Social institution shaping norms; Durkheim defines it as the sacred vs. the profane, creating Courtship: Relationship period before marriage. cultural markers. Romantic Love: Valued in some cultures (e.g., U.S.), but not essential for all marriages (e.g., arranged Symbolic Interactionism: Religion uses symbols (e.g., rituals, sacred objects) to express faith and → marriages). identity. Compatibility: Social, economic, and cultural factors often matter more than passion. Durkheim’s Functionalism: Propinquity: Proximity influences relationship formation. Social Cohesion: Unites people with shared values. 2. Changing Marriage Trends: → Social Control: Enforces norms (e.g., Ten Commandments). ○ Decline in Marriage: People marry later or avoid it. Purpose: Provides meaning within a divine plan. ○ Divorce Rates: 40-45% of marriages since the 1970s ended in divorce. ○ No-Fault Divorce: Introduced in the 1970s, made divorces easier. Conflict Theory: Marx sees religion as supporting social inequality and maintaining the status quo, ○ Stabilization: Fewer marriages and later marriages have led to lower divorce rates since the 1990s. reinforcing gender and racial inequalities. 3. Childbearing & Parenting: Feminist & Race Conflict Theory: ○ Childbirth Trends: 40% of births outside marriage. ○ Religion promotes male divinity and women's subordination (e.g., Eve in Christianity). ○ Social Class Divide: 9% of college-educated women have children outside marriage vs. 58% of those with only a ○ Historically, religion justified slavery and segregation. high school diploma. ○ Delayed Parenthood: Average age of first birth is now 26 (up from 21 in 1970). Religion in the U.S.: ○ Cost: Raising a child costs $233,000 (excluding college). ○ 70% value religion, with Protestants (50%) and Catholics (20%) as major groups. ○ Parenthood Value: Valued highly, with Millennials prioritizing good parenting over marriage success. ○ Evangelicals (South) vs. Mainstream Protestants (Northeast). ○ 87% of Black Americans are religious, mostly Protestant. 4. Family Structure: Family Size: Average family has 2.4 children. Secularization: Declining religious affiliation, especially among younger Americans, but religion still → Changing Patterns: Smaller families and delayed births due to birth control and economic factors. influences culture and norms. Sandwich Generation: Adults caring for both children and aging parents. Conclusion: Religion shapes society by influencing cohesion and inequality, with various sociological theories providing insights into its societal role. 5. Diverse Family Structures: ○ Same-Sex Marriage: Legalized in 2015. ○ Single-Parent Families: 1/3 of families with children, mostly headed by mothers. ○ Racial Differences: 66% of Black children raised in single-parent homes vs. 25% of white children. ○ Blended Families: Formed when remarried parents live with children from previous relationships. Sociology Page 8