Social Perception PDF

SOCIAL PERCEPTION NIVYA SABU ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SOCIAL PERCEPTION Perception is an individual’s recognition & interpretation of sensory information. Social perception process through which we seek to know and understand other people. Social perception refers to identifying and utilizi...

SOCIAL PERCEPTION NIVYA SABU ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SOCIAL PERCEPTION Perception is an individual’s recognition & interpretation of sensory information. Social perception process through which we seek to know and understand other people. Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics of others. This domain also includes social knowledge, which refers to one’s knowledge of social roles, norms, and schemas surrounding social situations and interactions. Humans have evolved highly efficient systems for social perception to survive and thrive in the social world. FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL PERCEPTION 1. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERSON YOU ARE OBSERVING Communication style Non-verbal communication Adaptability Skills Attitude and mindset Empathy and compassion 2. THE CONTEXT OF THE SITUATION The context of a situation refers to the circumstances, environment, and factors surrounding an event, interaction, or phenomenon. It includes cultural, social, personal, and environmental elements that influence how people perceive and interpret what's happening. Context influences how we understand and interpret social cues, behaviors, and communication. We attribute meanings and intentions to others' actions based on the context. Context sets expectations about appropriate behavior, roles, and norms. 3. YOUR OWN PERSONAL TRAITS Personality traits Attitudes and beliefs Values and motivations Emotional intelligence Cognitive style Self-esteem and confidence 4. YOUR PAST EXPERIENCES Past experiences shape our mental frameworks (schemas) that guide how we process and interpret new information. Past experiences can activate certain concepts, attitudes, or emotions, making them more accessible and influential in future social interactions (priming) We tend to seek out information that confirms our past experiences and beliefs, reinforcing our existing perceptions (Confirmation bias) Past experiences can create emotional connections to certain people, groups, or situations, influencing our future reactions. Past experiences can teach us to associate certain behaviors or characteristics with positive or negative outcomes (Learning and conditioning) Past experiences can create expectations and assumptions about how people will behave, influencing our perceptions of their actions. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication means conveying information without using words. A substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. In fact, some researchers suggest that the percentage of nonverbal communication is four times that of verbal communication, with 80% of what we communicate involving our actions and gestures versus only 20% being conveyed with the use of words. Every day, we respond to thousands of nonverbal cues and behaviors, including postures, facial expressions, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, our nonverbal communication reveals who we are and impacts how we relate to other people. 1. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS More than two thousand years ago, the Roman Orator Cicero stated “The face is the image of the soul” by this he meant that human feelings and emotions are often reflected in the face and modern research asserts these findings. But are these facial expressions universal? Early research suggest that facial expressions are universal (Ekman and Friesen 1975). But the result of more recent study, (Russell 1994, Carroll 1996) indicate that although facial expressions are indeed universal, our judgements of these emotions may also be affected by the context and various situational cues. Five different basic emotions represented clearly, and from a very early age, on the human face: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust. It does not imply that human beings can show only a small number of facial expressions. On the contrary, emotions occur in many combinations (e.g., joy together with sorrow, fear combined with anger) and each of these reactions can vary greatly in strength. Surprise, has also been suggested as a basic emotion reflected clearly in facial expressions, but recent evidence concerning this suggestion is mixed, so it may not be as basic or as clearly represented in facial expressions as other emotions. Are facial expressions universal? It has been found that certain facial expressions—smiles, frowns, and other signs of sadness) occur, and are recognized as representing basic underlying emotions (e.g., happiness, anger, sadness) in many different cultures. While the overall pattern of findings is not entirely consistent. Findings of Medal Winners – silver medal winners – social smile, Gold and bronze medal winners – real smile 2. EYE CONTACT Eyes ae referred to as the “windows to the soul” The eyes play a role in nonverbal communication, with such things as looking, staring, and blinking being important cues. For example, when you encounter people or things that you like, your rate of blinking increases and your pupils dilate. People's eyes can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and attraction. People also often utilize eye gaze cues to gauge a person's honesty. Normal, steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person is telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand, is frequently seen as an indicator that someone is lying or being deceptive. We interpret a high level of gazing from another as a sign of liking or friendliness. In contrast, if others avoid eye contact with us, we may conclude that they are unfriendly, don’t like us, or are simply shy. While a high level of eye contact with others is usually interpreted as a sign of liking or positive feelings, there is one exception to this general rule. If another person gazes at us continuously and maintains such contact regardless of what we do, he or she can be said to be staring. A stare is often interpreted as a sign of anger or hostility—as in cold stare—and most people find this particular nonverbal cue disturbing. In fact, we may quickly terminate social interaction with someone who stares at us and may even leave the scene. Bushman – Avoiding eye contact with highly aggressive drivers. https://youtu.be/r9l1lIHctLA?si=T_r8mUxbn_ASMc44 3. BODY LANGUAGE: GESTURES, POSTURE, AND MOVEMENTS Body language - Cues provided by the position, posture, and movement of others’ bodies or body parts. Body language often reveals others’ emotional states. Large numbers of movements—especially ones in which one part of the body does something to another part (touching, rubbing, scratching)—suggest emotional arousal. The greater the frequency of such behavior, the higher the level of arousal or nervousness. Larger patterns of movements, involving the whole body, can also be informative. Such phrases as “she adopted a threatening posture,” and “he greeted her with open arms”. In  Crossed arms might indicate that a person feels defensive, self-protective, or closed-off. Standing with hands placed on the hips can be an indication that a person is ready and in control, or it can also possibly be a sign of aggressiveness. Clasping the hands behind the back might indicate that a person is feeling bored, anxious, or even angry. Rapidly tapping fingers or fidgeting can be a sign that a person is bored, impatient, or frustrated. Crossed legs can indicate that a person is feeling closed-off or in need of privacy.  A clenched fist can indicate anger in some situations or solidarity in others. A thumbs up and thumbs down are often used as gestures of approval and disapproval. The "okay" gesture, made by touching together the thumb and index finger in a circle while extending the other three fingers can be used to mean "okay" or "all right."10 In some parts of Europe, however, the same signal is used to imply you are nothing. In some South American countries, the symbol is actually a vulgar gesture. The V sign, created by lifting the index and middle finger and separating them to create a V-shape, means peace or victory in some countries. In the United Kingdom and Australia, the symbol takes on an offensive meaning when the back of the hand is facing outward. Aronoff, Woike, and Hyman (1992) researchers first identified two groups of characters in classical ballet: ones who played a dangerous or threatening role (e.g., Macbeth, the Angel of Death, Lizzie Borden) and ones who played warm, sympathetic roles (Juliet, Romeo). Then they examined examples of dancing by these characters in actual ballets to see if they adopted different kinds of postures. Aronoff and his colleagues predicted that the dangerous, threatening characters would show more diagonal or angular postures, whereas the warm, sympathetic characters would show more rounded postures, and results strongly confirmed this hypothesis. https://youtu.be/nLGn1cveqIc?si=Ml9iWMNDiSFNjjxN https://youtu.be/4jwUXV4QaTw?si=ZjIZrAznlABBNouD 3. TOUCHING/ HAPTICS Suppose that during a brief conversation with another person, he or she touched you briefly. How would you react? What information would this behavior convey? The answer to both questions is, it depends. And what it depends on is several factors relating to who does the touching (a friend, a stranger, a member of your own or the other gender); the nature of this physical contact (brief or prolonged, gentle or rough, what part of the body is touched); and the context in which the touching takes place (a business or social setting, a doctor’s office). Depending on such factors, touch can suggest affection, sexual interest, dominance, caring, or even aggression. Despite such complexities, existing evidence indicates that when touching is considered appropriate, it often produces positive reactions in the person being touched. One acceptable way in which people in many different cultures touch strangers is through handshaking. “Pop psychology” and even books on etiquette suggest that handshakes reveal much about other people—for instance, their personalities—and that a firm handshake is a good way to make a favorable first impression on others. The firmer, longer, and more vigorous others’ handshakes are, the higher we tend to rate them in terms of extraversion and openness to experience, and the more favorable our first impressions of them tend to be. Other forms of touching, too, can sometimes be appropriate. Levav and Argo (2010) found that a light, comforting pat on the arm can induce feelings of security among both women and men - but only if the touching is performed by a woman. Such feelings of security, in turn, influence actual behavior: individuals touched on the shoulder by a female experimenter actually showed greater risk taking in an investment task than those not touched, or ones who were touched only through handshakes. PARALINGUISTICS It refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This form of nonverbal communication includes factors such as quality of voice, tone, loudness,pace, inflection/intonation, pronunciation, pauses, and pitch. For example, consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret a statement as approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone can convey disapproval and a lack of interest. We speak language when we speak, gasp, clears our throat, change our tone, whisper or shout, emphasize certain words. PROXEMICS People often refer to their need for "personal space." This is known as proxemics and is another important type of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us are influenced by several factors. Among them are social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. Initial studies in proxemics were conducted by Hall (1966), who theorized that people manage their social distance from one another as a way of regulating how much sensation or stimulation they received from other people. Public Distance (Over 12 Feet): The least intimate distance, usually reserved for public speaking, to show power, or to feel secure and safe. This distance mostly limits individuals to seeing one another and speaking loudly. Social Distance (4 to 12 Feet): Used for more formal interactions, while still keeping others at a safe distance. This spacing allows individuals to see and hear each other better but still prevents them from being able to touch. Personal Distance (1.5 to 4 Feet): This is the personal space or "bubble" that is generally reserved for significant others and friends. At this distance, individuals can speak quietly without being overheard and observe each other's nonverbal communication clearly. Furthermore, individuals are also close enough to reach out and touch each other socially too (e.g. a pat on the hand, handshake, touch on the elbow, etc.). Intimate Distance (Less than 1.5 Feet): This space is kept for romantic partners, family, and close friends. Primarily, this is used for more intimate touching, either of a friendly nature or for romance. Also, at this distance, individuals are likely to be able to smell each other too. FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS The facial feedback hypothesis (Laird, 1984) proposes a two-way relationship between facial expressions and internal emotions, suggesting that our expressions can influence our feelings. Supporting studies include McCanne and Anderson (1987), where participants imagining positive and negative events were asked to enhance or suppress facial muscle tension. Results showed that suppressing smiling muscles reduced enjoyment of positive events and suppressing frowning muscles slightly reduced distress for negative events. Additionally, participants had a harder time imagining the scenes when suppressing facial muscle activity. To address potential biases from self-reported emotions, Davis et al. (2010) used Botox and Restylane (anti-wrinkle drugs)injections in different groups, Botox – drug that paralyzes muscles involved in facial expressions Restylane - drug that simply fills in wrinkles without paralyzing facial muscles finding that paralyzing facial muscles with Botox affected emotional reactions to video clips, further supporting the hypothesis. DECEPTION AND MICROEXPRESSION  Research by DePaulo & Kashy (1998) indicates that lying is a common part of daily social interactions. Most people tell at least one lie per day, and deception occurs in about 20% of social interactions. This prevalence of lying is further supported by experiments showing that a majority of strangers lie to each other during brief first encounters (Feldman, Forrest, & Happ, 2002; Tyler & Feldman, 2004). People lie for various reasons, including: Avoiding Hurt: To spare others' feelings and avoid social discomfort. Concealing Feelings: To hide true emotions or reactions that might be socially inappropriate or damaging. Avoiding Punishment: To escape consequences for misdeeds or mistakes. Furthering Goals: To achieve personal or professional objectives. Challenges in Detecting Lies Generally, people are only slightly better than chance at detecting lies. Several factors contribute to this difficulty Truth Bias: We tend to perceive others as truthful, leading us to overlook potential signs of deception (Ekman, 2001). Politeness: Social norms make us reluctant to accuse others of lying, which discourages us from seeking out deception. Attention to Nonverbal Cues: People often fail to notice nonverbal signs that indicate lying (Etcoff, Ekman, Magee, & Frank, 2000). Consistency Assumption: We assume that if someone is truthful in one context, they will be truthful in all contexts, which can blind us to occasional lies (O'Sullivan, 2003). NONVERBAL CUES TO DETECT DECEPTION 1. MICROEXPRESSIONS Microexpressions are brief, involuntary facial expressions that reveal true emotions, lasting only a few tenths of a second. These expressions occur quickly after an emotion-provoking event and are difficult to suppress or fake, making them reliable indicators of genuine feelings. Examples: A person might show a quick flash of anger or fear before masking it with a smile when lying about their feelings. During an interrogation, a suspect might briefly exhibit guilt or anxiety before composing themselves. 2. INTERCHANNEL DISCREPANCIES Interchannel discrepancies are inconsistencies between different types of nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body movements, and gestures. Liars often struggle to control all nonverbal channels simultaneously, leading to noticeable mismatches. Examples: A person might smile while their body remains tense and closed off, indicating discomfort or deceit. Someone might nod affirmatively while verbally denying something, revealing a conflict between their true thoughts and their spoken words. 3. EYE CONTACT Deceptive individuals often blink more frequently and exhibit dilated pupils due to the stress of lying. Liars might show unusual eye contact patterns, either avoiding eye contact to hide their deceit or maintaining excessive eye contact to overcompensate and appear sincere. Abnormal eye contact can indicate discomfort or a conscious effort to control one's appearance. Examples: A person avoiding eye contact while giving an alibi may be trying to hide their guilt. Someone who stares too intently while lying might be attempting to convince the listener of their honesty. 4. EXAGGERATED FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Overly expressive reactions, such as exaggerated smiles or expressions of regret, can indicate deception as the person attempts to appear more genuine than they feel. Exaggerated expressions often signal that the individual is compensating for the lack of genuine emotion. Examples: A person who smiles too broadly when denying wrongdoing may be overcompensating for their nervousness or guilt. Someone who shows excessive sorrow or regret after rejecting a request might be fabricating their reasons for saying no. VERBAL CUES TO DETECT DECEPTION Linguistic style: Aspects of speech apart from the meaning of the words employed. Pitch: The pitch of a person's voice often rises when they are lying, especially if they are highly motivated to deceive. Response Time: Liars may take longer to begin responding to questions or describing events, as they need time to fabricate their stories. Speech Patterns: Frequent restarts, interruptions, and corrections in speech can indicate deception. The linguistic style of liars often differs from that of truthful individuals. https://youtu.be/tpJcBozuF6A?si=q_fpT59SQRoRhsVz  ATTRIBUTION You ask friend to a movie next week. They say, “No, sorry... I can’t do it next week.” Their refusal leaves you wondering about the reason: Do they not like you? Are they too busy? The reason you conclude for their refusal will affect your self-esteem and influence your future actions. This example highlights that in social interactions, we often want to understand not just how others feel, but also why they behave the way they do. We seek to know more about others’ lasting traits, interests, motives, and goals, such as their level of self-control. Example: People high in self-control are seen as trustworthy, while those low in self-control are viewed as unpredictable. Our interest in understanding others’ behaviors is driven by a basic desire to comprehend cause- and-effect relationships in the social world. Attribution: The process of seeking information and drawing inferences about the causes of behavior is known as attribution. Social psychologists study attribution to understand how we make sense of others' actions and predict future behavior 1. HEIDER’S COMMON SENSE THEORY OF ATTRIBUTION Fritz Heider suggested that people observe others, analyze their behavior, and come up with their own common-sense explanations for their actions. Most often such causal inferences are of two types: dispositional and situational. Dispositional Attribution A dispositional attribution means that the outcome is attributed to internal causes. In other words, the locus of control of the behavior is thought of as internal. Therefore, the individual or the actor is held responsible for the behavior. Observers think that such an outcome occurred because of the traits, abilities, skills of the actor and not because of situational or contextual factors. Situational Attribution A situational attribution means that the outcome is assigned to external causes. Thereby, the individual or the actor is not held responsible for the consequences of the action. Instead, we give greater importance is given to contextual and external factors. 2. JONES & DAVIS CORRESPONDENT INFERENCE THEORY Jones and Davis (1965) thought that people pay particular attention to intentional behavior (as opposed to accidental or unthinking behavior). Jones and Davis’ theory helps us understand the process of making an internal attribution. They say that we tend to do this when we see a correspondence between motive and behavior. For example, when we see a correspondence between someone behaving in a friendly way and being a friendly person. Dispositional (i.e., internal) attributions provide us with information from which we can make predictions about a person’s future behavior. The correspondent inference theory describes the conditions under which we make dispositional attributes to the behavior we perceive as intentional. Davis used the term correspondent inference to refer to a theory describing how we use others’ behavior as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions. It is an alternative term to dispositional attribution. So what leads us to make a correspondent inference? Choice: If the behavior is freely chosen, it is believed to be due to internal (dispositional) factors. Noncommon effects: Effects produced by a particular cause that could not be produced by any other apparent cause. Social Desirability: Behaviors low in sociable desirability (non-conforming) lead us to make (internal) dispositional inferences more than socially undesirable behaviors. For example, if you observe a person getting on a bus and sitting on the floor instead of one of the seats. This behavior has low social desirability (non-conforming) and is likely to correspond with the personality of the individual. Hedonistic Relevance: If the other person’s behavior appears to be directly intended to benefit or harm us. It is an emotional response how behavior affect the observer personally. Emphasis is on the affect on my well-being. Personalism: If the other person’s behavior appears to be intended to have an impact on us, we assume that it is “personal” and not just a by-product of the situation we are both in. Emphasis is on the perception of the intent. 3. KELLEY’S THEORY OF CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS It offers a framework for understanding how we determine the causes behind other people’s behaviors or events in our lives. Kelley’s theory suggests that we consider three types of information: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. CONSENSUS: This involves assessing whether other people behave in the same way as the person in question when faced with the same situation. For example, if many people are late to a meeting, high consensus might suggest external causes like traffic. CONSISTENCY: This considers whether the person behaves the same way in similar situations over time. If someone is consistently late to meetings, high consistency might suggest internal causes like poor time management. DISTINCTIVENESS: This evaluates whether the person behaves the same way in different situations. If someone is late to all types of events, low distinctiveness might point to an internal cause. If they are only late to work meetings but punctual elsewhere, high distinctiveness might suggest an external cause specific to work.  Example: Student Performance Scenario: A student, Alex, receives a poor grade on an exam. Consensus: Did other students in the class also perform poorly on the exam? Consistency: Has Alex received poor grades on other exams in this course? Distinctiveness: Does Alex receive poor grades in other subjects as well? Analysis: High Consensus, High Consistency, High Distinctiveness: Many students performed poorly (high consensus). Alex has consistently performed poorly in this course (high consistency). Alex performs well in other subjects (high distinctiveness). Attribution: External cause (the exam or the teaching in this course is particularly difficult). Low Consensus, High Consistency, Low Distinctiveness: Only Alex performed poorly (low consensus). Alex has consistently performed poorly in this course (high consistency). Alex performs poorly in other subjects too (low distinctiveness). Attribution: Internal cause (Alex might not be putting in enough effort or may have difficulty understanding the material). 4. SHAVER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY Shaver combined three main Attribution theories and constructs a general theory. His formulated the theory of attribution based on three assumptions about human nature. First, the behavior does not occur randomly, but organized therefore, are predictable. Second, people the desire to understand, to explain and predict the behavior of others. If this prediction is done correctly allows the person to more effectively cope through their environment. The third assumption, people visible behaviors give credible information about their underlying causes especially about character and personal traits. 5. WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY Bernard Weiner proposed a theory suggesting that a person’s own attributions in attempt to explain their success or failure, determines the effort they are willing to exert in the future. Weiner pinpointed a specific attribution that aspects like luck, effort, etc, are not as important as the characteristics of the attribution. This was described as the three causal dimensions, which is the reason for Weiner’s Attribution model being called the Three-Dimensional Model. THREE DIMENSIONS LOCUS Locus dimension refers to the perception of the cause of any event as internal or external. If a learner believes that she failed her math test because she lacked inability, she is referring to her internal attribution. On the other hand, if she blames the teacher to be incompetent, she is referring to the external attribution. STABILITY Stability dimension refers to whether the cause of the event is stable or unstable across time and situations. From the previous example, if she believes that she failed her math exam because of her inability in math, the cause is stable. The cause is more stable if she believes that her lack of ability is permanent. On the other hand, if she believes that had she not been sick, she could have aced the test, the cause is unstable, as illness is a temporary factor. CONTROLLABILITY Controllability dimension refers to whether or not the cause of any event is under the control of the learner. Eg: If she believes that she could have done better in the test had she practiced more, the cause is controllable. On the other hand, if she doubts her ability in math, the cause is uncontrollable. Environmental or external attributions cannot be considered as controllable. BASIC SOURCES OF ATTRIBUTION ERRORS 1. CORRESPONDENCE BIAS The correspondence bias, also known as the fundamental attribution error, is a tendency where people overestimate the role of dispositional (internal) causes and underestimate the role of situational (external) factors in explaining others' behaviors. Example Analysis: The Clumsy Man Imagine witnessing a man who arrives an hour late to a meeting, drops his notes, breaks his glasses, and spills coffee on himself. A common reaction might be to label him as disorganized and clumsy. However, this judgment overlooks potential external factors: Situational Factors: Late Arrival: He could have faced unavoidable delays at the airport. Dropping Notes: The notes might have been on slick paper, making them easy to slip. Broken Glasses: His glasses might have been poorly made or already damaged. Spilled Coffee: The cup could have been too hot or difficult to hold. The tendency to attribute these mishaps to his personal traits rather than considering situational factors demonstrates the correspondence bias. Jones and Harris (1967) In their classic study, participants read essays written by students either supporting or opposing Fidel Castro. Some were told the essay positions were freely chosen by the writers, while others were told the positions were assigned. Even when participants knew the positions were assigned, they still attributed the essay's stance to the writer's personal beliefs, illustrating the correspondence bias. Nisbett et al. (1973) Study Procedure: Participants were presented with 20 pairs of traits (e.g., quiet–talkative, lenient–firm). Individuals were asked to assess traits about themselves, their best friend, their father, a casual acquaintance, or Walter Cronkite (a famous newscaster at the time). They had to decide which traits were true for each of the target individuals. Additionally, they could choose a third option: “depends on the situation.” Results: Participants chose “depends on the situation” more often for themselves than for others. They reported their own behavior varied from situation to situation, but attributed others' behavior to stable personal traits. 2. ACTOR OBSERVER BIAS The tendency to attribute our own behavior mainly to situational causes but the behavior of others mainly to internal (dispositional) causes. Thus, when we see another person trip and fall, we tend to attribute this event to his or her clumsiness. If we trip, however, we are more likely to attribute this event to situational causes, such as ice on the sidewalk. Cause When we are the actors, we have more information about our own circumstances and the external factors influencing our actions. We understand the situational context and can see the nuances that lead to our behavior.  3. SELF-SERVING BIAS The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes (e.g., one's talent or effort) and negative outcomes to external causes (e.g., task difficulty or unfair grading). Positive Outcome: When receiving an "A" on a paper, one attributes it to personal talent and effort. Negative Outcome: When receiving a "D," one attributes it to external factors like the professor's harsh grading. Reasons for the Self-Serving Bias People process social information in ways that lead them to expect success. When success occurs, they attribute it to internal causes. The need to protect and enhance self-esteem leads people to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes and negative ones to external causes. Implications and Effects Interpersonal Friction: The self-serving bias can lead to conflicts, especially in collaborative tasks, where individuals may feel they contributed more and blame others for failures. Cultural Variations: Western cultures has higher prevalence of the self-serving bias due to the emphasis on individual accomplishments and personal success. Lee and Seligman (1997) show that Americans of European descent exhibit a stronger self-serving bias compared to Chinese Americans or mainland Chinese, illustrating the influence of cultural values on attributional biases. Morewedge (2009) Study Ultimatum Game Setup: Participants played a game where a partner (either a real person or a computer) was given $3.00 to divide between themselves and the participant. Conditions Very Favorable Division: $2.25 to the participant, $0.75 to the partner. Equal Division: $1.50 to each player. Very Unfavorable Division: $0.75 to the participant, $2.25 to the partner. Findings: Participants indeed believed the partner was human more often in the very unfavorable condition and a computer in the very favorable condition. APPLICATIONS OF ATTRIBUTION THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING DEPRESSION Depression is the most common psychological disorder, affecting nearly half of all people at some point in their lives. Attributional Patterns in Depression Self-Defeating Attributions: Negative Outcomes: Depressed individuals tend to attribute negative outcomes to lasting, internal causes such as personal traits or lack of ability. Positive Outcomes: Positive outcomes are often attributed to temporary, external causes such as luck or special favors. Impact of Self-Defeating Attributions Perceived Lack of Control: This pattern of attribution leads individuals to feel they have little control over their lives, feeling at the mercy of unpredictable fate. Vicious Cycle: Once depressed, the tendency to make self-defeating attributions strengthens, creating a vicious cycle that perpetuates depression. Therapeutic Interventions Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): New forms of therapy, particularly those based on attribution theory, have been developed to address these self-defeating patterns. Goals: Encourage taking personal credit for successes. Reduce self-blame for negative outcomes, especially those that are unavoidable. Reframe some failures as results of external factors beyond personal control. These therapies have shown success in helping individuals change their attributional styles, thereby alleviating symptoms of depression.  IMPRESSION FORMATION Upon meeting someone for the first time, we are immediately exposed to a large amount of sensory information. We quickly combine this information into an initial mental impression of the person, which influences our reactions. Impression formation refers to the way in which strangers develop perceptions of each other. Impression refers to an idea, feeling or opinion about something or someone formed without conscious thought or on the basis of little evidence. PRINCIPLES OF IMPRESSION FORMATION 1. On the basis of minimal information 2. Attention given to salient features than to everything 3. Context of the person’s behavior is considered rather than interpreting the behavior in isolation 4. We tend to categorize the stimuli 5. We use enduring cognitive structures to make sense of other people’s behavior 6. One’s own goals and needs influence their perception about others. IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT TACTICS SELF-ENHANCEMENT It is aimed at increasing one's appeal to others by improving their own image. Specific tactics include: Boosting Physical and Professional Appearance: Physical appearance involves efforts to enhance attractiveness and physical appeal. This is often reflected in the use of beauty products and fashionable clothing. Professional appearance includes personal grooming, appropriate dress, and good hygiene, all of which contribute to a positive first impression. Demonstrating Competence and Accomplishments: Individuals may highlight their achievements, describe positive traits, and take credit for past successes. OTHER-ENHANCEMENT This category focuses on making others feel good to foster positive reactions. Common tactics include: Ingratiation: Flattering others to gain their favor. Expressing Agreement and Interest: Agreeing with the target person's views, showing genuine interest in their life, and engaging in behaviors that show attention and care, such as asking for advice or doing small favors. Nonverbal Expressions of Liking: Using nonverbal cues like eye contact, nodding, and smiling to convey approval and warmth. THANK YOU