SOC105 Essay PDF

1. Social Inequality: Unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups in a society. 2. Social Stratification: A hierarchical system of ranking people based on factors like wealth, power, and status. 3. Equality of Condition: The idea that everyone...

1. Social Inequality: Unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups in a society. 2. Social Stratification: A hierarchical system of ranking people based on factors like wealth, power, and status. 3. Equality of Condition: The idea that everyone should have an equal starting point in life. 4. Meritocracy: A system where advancement is based on individual talent, effort, and achievement. 5. Who Is to Blame for Social Inequality?: A debate over whether inequality results from individual choices (blaming the victim) or systemic issues (blaming the system). 6. Classism: Discrimination or prejudice based on social class. 7. Blaming the Victim vs. Blaming the System: Attributing inequality to personal failure (victim) or structural barriers (system). 8. Closed and Open Systems of Stratification: ○ Closed systems: Little or no mobility, like caste systems. ○ Open systems: Allow movement between classes, like class systems. 9. Caste System vs. Class System: ○ Caste system: Fixed social hierarchy based on birth. ○ Class system: Social mobility based on achievement and economic status. 10. Ascribed and Achieved Status: ○ Ascribed status: Social position assigned at birth. ○ Achieved status: Social position earned through effort and skill. 11. Social Mobility: The ability to move up or down the social hierarchy. 12. Stratification’s Social Factors: Elements like education, occupation, race, and gender that influence stratification. 13. Social Class in Canada: The division of Canadian society into upper, middle, and lower classes. 14. The Three Social Classes: ○ Upper class: Wealthy and influential. ○ Middle class: Professionals and skilled workers. ○ Lower class: Low-income individuals and those in precarious jobs. 15. Social Inequality and Class Mobility in Canada: Limited movement between social classes due to systemic barriers. 16. Standard of Living: The level of wealth, comfort, and access to resources a person or group has. 17. Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty: ○ Absolute poverty: Inability to meet basic needs. ○ Relative poverty: Living below the standard of others in society. 18. Factors Influencing Social Inequality in Canada: Include education, employment, race, gender, and government policies. 19. Functionalism (Davis-Moore): Suggests that stratification serves a purpose by rewarding the most important jobs. 20. Conflict Theory (Marx): Argues that inequality arises from the conflict between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and working class (proletariat). 21. Max Weber (Class, Status, Party): Inequality is based on economic position (class), social honor (status), and political power (party). 22. Feminist Theory: Focuses on how inequality disproportionately affects women through systems like patriarchy. 23. Double Shift: Women working both paid jobs and unpaid domestic labor. 24. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how social symbols and interactions reinforce inequality. 25. Status Symbol: Objects or behaviors that display social standing. 26. Veblen’s Conspicuous Consumption: Spending money to display wealth and status. 27. Global Stratification and Inequality: Worldwide disparities in wealth, health, and access to resources due to globalization and historical factors. 28. Neoliberalism: An economic and political philosophy advocating free markets, minimal government intervention, deregulation, and privatization to promote economic growth and individual freedoms. 29. Globalization: The process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries through trade, communication, technology, and cultural exchange. 30. Empire: A system of political and economic dominance where one nation controls others, often through colonization, military force, or economic exploitation. mall Definitions for Crime and Deviance Topics 1. Crime vs. Deviance: ○ Crime: Behavior that violates laws and is punishable by the state. ○ Deviance: Behavior that violates social norms but may not be illegal. 2. Howard Becker and Moral Entrepreneur: Moral entrepreneurs are individuals or groups who influence societal norms by labeling certain behaviors as deviant. 3. Social Control: Mechanisms society uses to regulate behavior, ensuring conformity to norms and laws. 4. Donald Black’s Four Types of Social Control: Social control can be penal, compensatory, therapeutic, or conciliatory, depending on the type of response to deviance. 5. Michel Foucault’s Social Control as Government and Discipline: Power and control are maintained through institutions and practices that discipline individuals and regulate populations. 6. Social Control and Governance: The use of laws, policies, and norms to manage behavior and maintain social order. 7. Disciplinary Social Control: Techniques that shape individual behavior through surveillance and regulation. 8. Panopticon (Jeremy Bentham’s “Seeing Machine”): A prison design symbolizing constant surveillance to control and discipline behavior. 9. Surveillance: Monitoring individuals to ensure compliance with social norms and laws. 10. Normalization and Normalizing Society: Establishing standards of behavior, making deviations seem abnormal or undesirable. 11. Rational Choice Theory: The idea that people commit crimes after weighing the costs and benefits of their actions. 12. Biological Perspectives: Theories suggesting that biological factors, such as genetics or brain structure, influence criminal behavior. 13. Cesare Lombroso and Born Criminals: A theory that certain physical traits predict a predisposition to criminal behavior. 14. James Fallon and Environmental Factors: Emphasizes how environmental influences, like childhood trauma, interact with biology to shape criminal behavior. Sociological Perspectives on Crime and Deviance 15. Functionalist Theory: Views crime as serving societal functions, like reinforcing norms and promoting social change. 16. Robert Merton: Strain Theory: Crime results from the strain caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. 17. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin: Illegitimate Opportunity Theory: Access to illegitimate means, like gangs, affects the likelihood of deviance. 18. Hirschi: Control Theory: Strong social bonds reduce the likelihood of deviant behavior. 19. Conflict Theory: Crime and deviance arise from power struggles between dominant and subordinate groups. 20. Crimes of Accommodation: Crimes committed by oppressed groups as forms of resistance. 21. Power Elite: The wealthy and powerful influence laws and norms to maintain their dominance. 22. Crime and Social Class: Different social classes experience and commit crime differently, often due to systemic inequalities. 23. Street Crime vs. White-Collar Crime: ○ Street crime: Visible crimes like theft and violence.  ○ White-collar crime: Non-violent crimes by individuals in positions of power. Symbolic Interactionism 24. Edwin Sutherland: Differential Association Theory: Deviance is learned through interactions with others. 25. Howard Becker: Career of Marijuana and Labeling Theory: Deviance results from societal labeling rather than the act itself. 26. Edwin Lemert: Primary and Secondary Deviance; Master Status: ○ Primary deviance: Initial rule-breaking behavior. ○ Secondary deviance: Deviance resulting from societal reactions. ○ Master status: A deviant label becomes the defining identity. Feminist Theory 27. Perception of Female Criminals: Female criminals are often judged through gendered stereotypes. 28. Otto Pollack: Chivalry Hypothesis: Suggests women are treated more leniently by the justice system. 29. Doubly Deviant Female Criminal: Women are judged both for breaking laws and for violating gender norms. 30. Elizabeth Comack and Salena Brickey: Victim, Mad, Bad: Frameworks used to interpret women’s deviance: as victims, mentally ill, or inherently bad. 31. Perception of Female Victims: Women victims face stereotypes and secondary victimization. 32. Secondary Victimization: Further harm experienced by victims due to societal or institutional responses. 33. Twin Myths of Rape: Misconceptions that women frequently lie about rape and that their behavior invites assault. Sociology of Law 34. Rule of Law: The principle that everyone is subject to the same legal standards. 35. Crime, Risk, and Regulation in Canada: Legal frameworks addressing crime and societal risks. 36. Moral Panic: Public fear over an issue seen as threatening societal norms. 37. Fear-Gender Paradox: Women feel more fear of crime despite being less likely to be victims than men. 38. Moral Regulation: Efforts to control behaviors considered immoral or deviant. Theorizing Law 39. Classical Approach to Theorizing Law: Examines law as a means to maintain social order. 40. Consensus View: Law reflects society’s shared norms and values. 41. Conflict View: Law is shaped by powerful groups to maintain control. 42. Interactionist View: Focuses on how laws are socially constructed through interactions. 43. Modern Approach to Theorizing Law: Contemporary analyses of law’s role in maintaining or challenging inequality. 44. Critical Legal Studies: Views laws as tools of oppression benefiting the powerful. 45. Protectionist Rhetoric: Legal justifications used to protect certain groups while maintaining inequalities. 46. Feminist Legal Studies: Analyzes how laws reinforce gender inequality. 47. Critical Race Theory: Examines how laws perpetuate racial inequalities. Conflict/Critical Theory 1. Conflict/Critical Theory: Examines how power dynamics and inequality shape social relationships, often favoring dominant groups. 2. Power Relationships and Access to Social Resources: Inequalities in access to resources are maintained by those in power to exploit subordinate groups. 3. Dominant Group Oppressing Subordinated Group: A process where dominant groups maintain control by exploiting and marginalizing others. 4. Randall Collins: Sociologist who emphasized conflict within households and power struggles in daily family life. 5. Gender and Subordination of Women in the Family: Patriarchal structures often subordinate women within families, perpetuating gender inequality. 6. Children, Ageism, and Lack of Social Power: Children and older adults often face discrimination and limited agency in societal and family contexts. 7. Social Reproduction: Activities ensuring the daily survival and ongoing care of the population, like caregiving and domestic work. 8. Family Structure in Maintaining Social Inequality: Family systems can perpetuate inequality by reinforcing traditional gender roles and power imbalances. 9. Domestic vs. Public Sphere: Division of labor where men dominate public roles while women are relegated to private/domestic ones. 10. Bifurcated Consciousness: The divide between women’s lived experiences and the institutional, male-dominated world they navigate. Interactionist Theory 11. Exchange Theory: Relationships are viewed as transactions, where individuals seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs. 12. Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how family members create and share meanings through daily interactions. 13. Meaning of Family Unit: The family is understood as a social construct defined by shared roles and meanings. 14. Role of Each Member: Family roles are defined through shared understanding and social expectations. 15. Role Strain: Stress caused by inadequate resources to fulfill social or familial roles effectively. Theoretical Perspectives 16. Post-Structuralist Approach: Explores how power operates through language, norms, and social practices to shape behavior. 17. Normalizing Discourse: Defines acceptable behaviors and limits deviations through societal norms and expectations. 18. State Intervention: Government policies and programs aimed at regulating family life and societal behavior. 19. Daytime TV and Talk Shows: Media that reinforces or challenges family norms and societal expectations. 20. Parenting Magazines: Publications shaping and normalizing parenting practices and family values. 21. Queer Theory: Challenges heteronormative assumptions and explores diverse sexual orientations and family forms. 22. Heteronormativity: The belief that heterosexuality is the only natural and normal sexual orientation. Family and Problems 23. 5 Basic Models of Family Conflicts: ○ Deficit Model: Problems arise from inadequate resources or support. ○ Overload Model: Stress from balancing multiple roles. ○ Cultural Tension Model: Conflict from cultural or value mismatches. ○ Conflict-of-Interest Model: Competing interests within the family. ○ Anomie Model: Breakdown of norms and roles within the family. 24. Family and Gender Inequality: Unequal distribution of responsibilities and power based on gender roles. 25. Three Models of Power Distribution: ○ Head-Complement Model: One partner leads; the other supports. ○ Junior Partner/Senior Partner: Unequal but collaborative roles. ○ Equal Partners: Shared power and responsibilities. 26. Global Gender Inequality and Family Lives: Worldwide disparities in how gender roles and family expectations are structured. Abuse and Violence 27. Child Abuse: Physical, emotional, sexual harm, neglect, or mistreatment of children. 28. Domestic Violence: Abuse within intimate relationships, including physical, emotional, and financial harm. 29. Intimate Partner Violence (IPV): Abuse by a romantic partner, which may include physical, sexual, or emotional harm. 30. Intimate Femicide: The killing of a woman by her male intimate partner. 31. Elder Abuse: Mistreatment of older adults, including neglect, exploitation, or physical harm. 32. Shaken-Baby Syndrome: A medical condition caused by violently shaking an infant, leading to brain damage or death. Divorce 33. Factors in Divorce: Issues such as communication breakdown, infidelity, or financial stress leading to marital dissolution. 34. Divorce Act of 1968: Introduced grounds for divorce in Canada, like adultery or cruelty. 35. No-Fault Divorce Law of 1986: Allowed couples to divorce without assigning blame. 36. Divorce Act of 1997: Refined legal grounds and processes for divorce in Canada. 37. Children of Divorce and Remarriage: Emotional and developmental impacts on children, influenced by their age and family dynamics. 38. After Divorce: Adjustments in family roles, financial situations, and social relationships following divorce. Core Concepts 1. Gender: Social and cultural distinctions relating to femininity, masculinity, and other identities. 2. Sex: Physical and physiological differences between male, female, and intersex individuals. 3. Sexuality: An individual’s sexual orientation, preferences, and identity. 4. Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of being along the spectrum of masculine and feminine. 5. Cisgender: Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth. 6. Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity does not match the sex assigned at birth. 7. Gender Queer: Those who reject conventional gender norms and may identify as neither, both, or a mix of genders. Dominant Discourse of Gender 8. Gender Role: Societal expectations for behaviors and traits associated with masculinity or femininity. 9. Hegemonic Masculinity: The dominant, socially accepted form of masculinity that reinforces male dominance. 10. Emphasized Femininity: Idealized femininity emphasizing subordination to men and compliance with traditional gender roles. Gender and Socialization 11. Family: The first socializing agent that instills gender roles through chores and restrictions. 12. Education: A site of gender segregation and stereotypes, influencing career paths and behaviors. 13. Peer Groups: Social circles where nonconformity may lead to isolation or sanctions, especially for boys. 14. Mass Media: Reinforces gender norms through advertisements and stereotypical portrayals of women. Social Stratification and Inequality 15. Pink Collar vs. Blue Collar Occupations: Pink-collar: female-dominated jobs like caregiving; Blue-collar: manual labor, male-dominated. 16. 4 Reasons for the Gender Gap: Gender discrimination in hiring and pay. Gendered job concentration. Unequal unpaid domestic labor. Devaluation of pink-collar positions. 17. Stratification: A system where groups face unequal access to social resources. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender 18. Structural Functionalism: Explains gender roles as necessary for societal stability, with men in public spheres and women in private ones. 19. Talcott Parsons: Described the husband as the breadwinner and the wife as the homemaker for societal functioning. 20. Conflict Theory: Focuses on power dynamics where dominant groups exploit and oppress subordinated ones. 21. Feminist Theory: Highlights systemic gender inequalities, including the division between women’s lived realities and male-dominated institutions. 22. Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how gender is socially constructed and performed through interactions (e.g., "Doing Gender" by West and Zimmerman). 23. Post-Structuralist Theories: Emphasize gender and sexuality as fluid constructs shaped by discourse and societal norms. 24. Judith Butler's Gender Performance: Gender as an act or behavior that is performed and reinforced socially. Sexuality and Sociological Perspectives 25. Sexual Identity: A person’s self-perception as a sexual being, shaped by attraction, body awareness, and preferences. 26. Alfred Kinsey’s Six-Point Scale: A spectrum of sexual orientation ranging from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. 27. Charmed Circle and Outer Limit: Framework categorizing sexual behaviors as socially acceptable or deviant. 28. Sexual Double Standard: Permissive norms for men’s sexuality but restrictive norms for women’s. 29. Rape Culture: A societal framework normalizing or trivializing sexual violence. 30. Commodification of Sexuality: Treating sexual expression as a marketable good or service. 31. Michel Foucault: Explored sexuality as a form of social control through knowledge and surveillance. 32. Heteronormative: Belief that heterosexuality is the only normal sexual orientation. 33. Cis-Normative: Assumption that binary gender identities are the only norm.  Sexuality and Identity Formation 34. Sexual Script: Socially learned behaviors and norms regarding sexuality. 35. Coming Out Process: Stages of self-discovery and social acceptance for LGBTQ+ individuals: Identity Confusion Identity Comparison Identity Tolerance Identity Acceptance Identity Pride Identity Synthesis 36. Queer Theory: Critiques the binary understanding of gender and sexuality, emphasizing diversity and fluidity. 37. Gender Performativity: The repetitive enactment of behaviors and roles that create the illusion of a fixed gender identity. 38. Discourse of Sexuality: Examines how meanings around sexuality are constructed and normalized in society. Core Concepts 1. Gender: Social and cultural distinctions associated with being male, female, or nonbinary, encompassing roles, behaviors, and societal expectations. 2. Ethnicity: Shared cultural characteristics, such as heritage, language, religion, and traditions, that define a group’s identity. 3. Race: A socially constructed concept based on perceived physical traits like skin color, often used to group and categorize people, with significant social and political consequences. 4. Sexuality: An individual’s orientation, preferences, and behaviors related to intimacy and attraction (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual). 5. Sex: Biological differences between male, female, and intersex individuals, including chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive anatomy. Race vs. Ethnicity 6. Race vs. Ethnicity: Race emphasizes physical traits and social consequences, while ethnicity focuses on shared cultural characteristics like language and religion. 7. Racialization: The process of marking groups for unequal treatment based on perceived physical differences. 8. Miscegenation: The blending of different racialized groups through marriage, cohabitation, or reproduction. Minority and Majority Groups 9. Minority Group: A socially disadvantaged group with distinct characteristics from the majority. 10. Majority Group: A socially advantaged group with access to power and resources. 11. Two Components of Minority Groups: ○ Lack of social power. ○ Distinct characteristics from the majority group. Discrimination and Prejudice 12. Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs about groups, which can be positive or negative. 13. Prejudice: Negative, long-lasting attitudes toward a group, often unsupported by facts. 14. Discrimination: Actions that deny or grant advantages to a group. 15. Racism: Beliefs or practices justifying the superiority of one race over another. Types of Discrimination 16. Individual Discrimination: One person’s actions disadvantaging another based on group membership. 17. Direct Institutional Discrimination: Policies or practices intentionally disadvantaging a group. 18. Indirect Institutional Discrimination: Actions unintentionally disadvantaging a group due to systemic criteria. 19. White Privilege: Unearned advantages granted to individuals in the dominant racial group. 20. Democratic Racism: A system advocating equality but perpetuating minority oppression. 21. Institutional Racism: Discriminatory practices embedded in societal policies and institutions. Race and Ethnicity in Canada 22. Settler Society: A society founded through colonization, displacing Indigenous populations. 23. Stages of Colonialism: ○ Mutual relationship. ○ Economic dependency on colonizers. ○ Creation of reserves. ○ Political resistance and mobilization. 24. Black Canadians: ○ Contributions through abolition movements and the Underground Railroad. ○ Faced segregation and marginalization (e.g., Africville). 25. Asian Canadians: ○ Discrimination through policies like the Chinese Head Tax and Japanese internment camps. ○ South Asian migrants faced restrictions and stereotypes as a "model minority." Intergroup Relations and Diversity Management 26. Genocide: Deliberate annihilation of a targeted group (e.g., Holocaust, Darfur). 27. Expulsion: Forcing a subordinate group to leave an area or country. 28. Segregation: Physical separation of groups in housing, work, and social spaces. ○ De Jure Segregation: Legally enforced separation. ○ De Facto Segregation: Separation occurring through social practices. 29. Assimilation: When minority groups adopt the dominant culture's traits. 30. Integration: Minority groups and the dominant group interact to form a cohesive society. 31. Multiculturalism: Recognition of cultural and racial diversity and the equality of cultural expressions. 32. Hybridity: Creation of new cultural forms by blending different racial and ethnic practices. Theoretical Approaches 33. Social Psychology: Examines the formation and impact of prejudice and stereotypes. ○ Scapegoat Theory: Dominant groups displace aggression onto minorities. ○ Authoritarian Personality Theory: Prejudice arises from strict adherence to cultural norms. 34. Functionalism: Racial hierarchies serve initial social or economic functions but eventually lead to dysfunction. 35. Critical Race Theory: Explores intersections of race, class, gender, and sexuality to understand discrimination. 36. Post-Colonialism: Analyzes how colonial histories shape modern inequalities. 37. Intersectionality Theory: Highlights how overlapping social categories (e.g., race, gender, class) create unique experiences of oppression. 38. Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on the social construction of race and prejudice through interactions and symbols. Symbolic Interactionism and Prejudice 39. Herbert Blumer’s Four Dominant Feelings: ○ Superiority. ○ Belief in the difference and alien nature of minorities. ○ Proprietary claim to privilege. ○ Fear that minorities threaten privileges of the dominant group.