Gender, Sex, and Sexuality - SOC 1100 - PDF

12. Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Female genital mutilation Violence against women Women and girls are killed in so-called “honour” killings (for the “dishonour” of being raped!); Thailand: 1-2 million prostitutes (8 % of the female population); Rape in war; 130 million girls and young women -...

12. Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Female genital mutilation Violence against women Women and girls are killed in so-called “honour” killings (for the “dishonour” of being raped!); Thailand: 1-2 million prostitutes (8 % of the female population); Rape in war; 130 million girls and young women -> female genital mutilation; 50 million abortions, 20 million unsafe. Not women’s issues but gender order -> patriarchy play a key role. 1. Sex and Gender Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender refers to behaviors, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to being female or male. Characteristics of gender, may vary greatly between different societies. Feminine (or a trait of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) are considered masculine. Scottish male kilt not feminine. Cultural meanings about what is considered masculine and feminine, what is not, vary from one society to another and from one historical period to another. Meanings and sexual activities vary… Gender order: the ways in which societies shape notions of masculinity and femininity into power relationships. The dichotomous view of gender (the notion that someone is either male or female) not universal. In some cultures gender is viewed as fluid. In Samoan culture: a “third gender”: “Fa’afafine” (“the way of the woman”), individuals born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits. Not homosexuals, varied sexual life that may include men and women. The New Guinea Society of the Sambia: the ritualised form of homosexuality in order to establish their heterosexuality. Sex: the biological distinctions between females and males. Chromosome make-up (female: XX; male: XY); reproductive organs, external and internal genitals (clitoris, vagina, ovaries; penis, testicles, gonads); hormonal states (oestrogen, testosterone) and secondary sex characteristics (breast, beard). -But enormous variations within the two sexes in genetic and normal endowment. -Sex: not clear-cut matter -> hormone imbalance before birth -> hermaphrodite (Hermes and Aphrodite) -> embedding both sexes -> some combination of female and male internal and external genitalia -> confusion but for Navajo: the embodiment of the full potential of both female and the male. Humans are symbol manipulators who make and inhabit worlds of meaning -> transmitted from generation to generation Uncomplicated answers - ideological functions - affirm the existing social order and the division of gender roles. Binary way of thinking - intolerance of ambiguity (homosexuality or gynecomastia). -> The continuum of violence: Coercive sex, rape, obscene phone calls, in home / street. Sexual Orientation Physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female). Sexual orientation is typically divided into four categories: Heterosexuality, attraction to individuals of the other sex (“straight”); Homosexuality, attraction to individuals of the same sex (gay); Bisexuality, attraction to individuals of either sex; Pansexuality, attraction towards people of all genders, or regardless of their sex or gender identity Asexuality, no attraction to either sex. Heteronormative societies: assume sexual orientation is biologically determined and unambiguous. Sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. “Homosocial” oppose “homosexual” describing nonsexual same-sex relations. Western societies - Males are subject to a clear divide between the two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity. Women can express homosocial feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex) through hugging, handholding, and physical closeness. Males refrain from these expressions since they violate the heteronormative expectation that male sexual attraction should be exclusively for females. “Masculinity crushes men the most” (Erkeklik en çok erkeği ezer) Genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation? No evidence. Discrimination based on stereotypes and misinformation. Based on heterosexism: both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations. A systematic disadvantage embedded in the social institutions, offering power to those who conform to heterosexual orientation (like racism and sexism). Homophobia, an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals -> stereotyping and discrimination. Social struggles, civil rights, same-sex marriages legalized, changing discourses. LGBT (LGBTQ) movement, “Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender” (“Queer” or “Questioning”). Gender Roles Children introduced to certain roles typically linked to their biological sex. Gender role: society’s concept of how men and women are expected to look and how they should behave -> based on norms, or standards, created by society. Masculine roles: strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Socialization at birth: male infants in blue and girls in pink. Color-coded gender labels applied even while the baby is in the womb. “Masculine” – “feminine” Learning gender roles through play. Boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero equipment -> active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters -> dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Children -> play with “gender appropriate” toys (or same-gender toys); positive feedback for gender normative behavior. Masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life. Men in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare (even though the term “doctor” still conjures the image of a man), and social work -> fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference. Gender Identity A person’s deeply held internal perception of his or her gender. Transgender: individuals identify with the role different from their biological sex; not the same as homosexual, Transgender males: males who have a strong emotional and psychological connection to the feminine aspects of society; they identify their gender as female. The parallel connection to masculinity exists for transgender females. Transsexuals: Transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy. -> the physical being is better aligned with gender identity (male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM)). Difficult to identify their origin: biological factors such as genetics or prenatal hormone levels as well as social and cultural factors such as childhood and adulthood experiences. “Gender Identity Disorder” stigmatizing the “patient” (hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery) -> replaced with “Gender Dysphoria”: the condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. A marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Whole array of different masculinities and femininities -> some become dominant. Hegemonic / subordinated masculinities. 2. Gender Gender and Socialization “Boys will be boys” – “Erkek adam” Aggressive behavior, often accepted from boys and men -> congruent with the cultural “script” for masculinity written by society, to behave according to the expectations of their respective gender roles. Scripts learned through socialization, which teaches people to behave according to social norms. “Child” marriage Socialization Children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles. Socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes (riding a motorcycle as a masculine activity?) Attitudes typically based on stereotypes, oversimplified notions about members of a group -> overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism. Women -> strongly undervalued, young girls may not be given the same access to nutrition, healthcare, and education as boys. They will grow up believing they deserve to be treated differently from boys. Discrimination based on sex occurs at both the micro- and macro-levels. In the social structure; institutional discrimination. Gender socialization 4 major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. Creating and maintaining normative expectations for gender-specific behavior. Secondary agents : religion and the workplace. Repeated exposure: the false sense that they are acting “naturally”. Family is the first agent of socialization. Parents socialize sons and daughters differently. Differential socialization -> greater privileges afforded to sons -> more autonomy and independence at an earlier age than daughters -> fewer restrictions on appropriate clothing, dating habits, or curfew -> free from performing domestic duties such as cleaning or cooking and other household tasks that are considered feminine. Daughters -> expectation to be passive and nurturing, generally obedient, and to assume many of the domestic responsibilities. Parental socialization and normative expectations also vary along lines of social class, race, and ethnicity. Schools: the reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes -> explicit stratification -> segregation. Girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math and science. Teachers treating boys and girls in opposite ways, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration. Boys -> greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role. Mimicking the actions of significant others is the first step in the development of a separate sense of self (G. Herbert Mead). Children not conforming to the appropriate gender role - > negative sanctions by their peers. Mass media: women less significant roles, portrayed as wives or mothers, “saint-like figure” or a malevolent, hypersexual figure. TV commercials reinforce inequality and gender-based stereotypes. Women -> ads promoting cooking, cleaning, or childcare-related products. Ways dehumanizing, especially in music videos - > intermingling violence and sexuality. The beauty myth - Women physical appearance -> unattainable standards of beauty (Playboy girls, skinny Paris fashion models) -> self-defeating. Women objects – Men possess them -> Human Barbie ! Patriarchy, gender stratification and sexism Gender -> the heart of social organisation. - Sexism: the belief that one sex is innately superior to the another -> males “legitimately” dominate females - > has much in common with racism -> institutional sexism; - Patriarchy (the rule of fathers): a form of social organisation in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women -> universal but significant variation. Social stratification and inequality A system in which groups of people experience unequal access to basic, yet highly valuable, social resources. Gender stratification in relation with stratification of race, income (economic realm), occupation, and the like. Work classified by gender -> a “cultural universal Women – division of labour: 50 percent of the populations, considerable proportion in the employment, but men vastly outnumber women in authoritative, powerful, and, therefore, high-earning jobs. Even equal employment status: less paid. Majority of the unpaid work at home. Spend time doing household management activities. Double duty -> working women in a subordinate role in the family structure. Even if the job types very similar / the differences slight, men’s work still considered more vital. History of gender stratification -> great progress in terms of abolishing some of the most blatant forms of gender inequality but effects of male dominance still permeate many aspects of society. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Structural Functionalism The family: the most integral component of society, assumptions about gender roles within marriage assume a prominent place in this perspective. Gender roles established well before the pre-industrial era. Men: responsibilities outside of the home (hunting), and women: domestic responsibilities in or around the home. Roles -> functional because women limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time -> roles an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly. Changes occurred in the social and economic climate (WW2) - > family structure also changed. Women: domestic role + also the role of breadwinner (or modern hunter-gatherer) -> a state of imbalance. Conflict Theory - power and hierarchy Society -> a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. Men the dominant group; women as the subordinate group. Social problems created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups. “Women’s Suffrage Movement”. -> difficult for women to rise above men; dominant group members create the rules for success and opportunity in society. Friedrich Engels (a German sociologist): the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in the household (women the role of the proletariat). Women’s dependence on men for the attainment of wages. Contemporary conflict theory: women wage earners -> gain power in the family structure -> create more democratic arrangements in the home (although majority of the domestic burden). -> Violence… Feminist Theory Feminist theory (a type of conflict theory) -> inequalities in gender-related issues. The maintenance of gender roles and inequalities. Radical feminism -> the role of the family in perpetuating male dominance. In patriarchal societies, men’s contributions “more valuable” than those of women, taken for granted. Women’s viewpoints silenced or marginalized, discredited or considered invalid. Indonesian Minangkabau society -> matriarchy (women comprise the dominant group); women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively regardless of whether a job is considered feminine worldwide standards. Symbolic Interactionism Analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction; masculinity and femininity. Behavior according to the gender of interlocutors. characteristics associated with masculinity or femininity. The meanings attached to symbols socially created and not natural, and fluid, not static. We act and react to symbols based on the current assigned meaning. The word gay -> “cheerful,” but by the 1960s primary meaning of “homosexual.” Negative and unfavorable meaning -> gained more neutral and even positive connotations. Performing tasks or possessing characteristics based on the gender role; Expressing our masculinity or femininity -> “doing gender” (gender not something “we are”). The social construction of sexuality: socially created definitions about sex-linked behavior shape the way people see and experience sexuality. Biological determinism: sex, gender, and sexuality linked to “male and female behavior (differences in their biology). Being Male, Being Female, and Being Healthy Broverman and Broverman’s study (1971, 2006): traits mental health workers ascribed to males and females. The characteristics of a female: unaggressive, gentle, emotional, tactful, less logical, not ambitious, dependent, passive, and neat. The male characteristics: aggressive, rough, unemotional, blunt, logical, direct, active, and sloppy (healthy person!). Being female is associated with being somewhat unhealthy or not of sound mind. -> Understanding gender disparities in certain illnesses (1/8 women clinical depression in her lifetime) -> Why? Biological or the result of institutionalized sexism? 3. Sex and Sexuality Sexual attitudes and practices Focus on sexual attitudes and practices, not on physiology or anatomy. Sexuality: a person’s capacity for sexual feelings. Sexual behavior is a cultural universal, interpreted in different ways (premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, etc. The incest taboo is present in every society (for which relative?). Norms / “normal” reinforcing the culturally accepted social system of sexuality. (“Monogamy”, opposing extramarital sex.) Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion. Sexuality around the World Normative standards differ across the world. (For ex.) Scandinavian students are more tolerant of premarital sex than are U.S. students. In non-Western societies—like China, Iran, and India —valued chastity highly in a potential mate. 89 percent of Swedes, 42 percent of Irish: nothing wrong with premarital sex. 93 percent of Filipinos, 75 percent of Russians: sex before age 16 wrong. Spaniards: 45 % homosexuality wrong; 42 % never wrong; 13 % responded somewhere in the middle. Child marriage -------------------------- sex education (compulsory In Sweden around age six -> rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease are among the world’s lowest. Sexualities: double standard Belief that men have—or have the right to— more sexual urges than women creates a double standard -> prohibiting premarital sexual intercourse for women but allowing it for men -> allowing women to engage in premarital sex only within committed love relationships, but allowing men to engage in sexual relationships with as many partners as they wish without condition -> women have fewer sexual partners in her life time than a man. Sociological Perspectives on Sex and Sexuality The manner in which sexuality is constructed has a significant effect on perceptions, interactions, and outcomes. Structural Functionalism Regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability. Social arrangements that promote and ensure family preservation. Encouraging sexual activity in the marriage -> to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship -> the best possible chance for appropriate socialization and the provision of basic resources. Homosexuality cannot be promoted -> (if yes) procreation would eventually cease -> “dysfunctional” to society. Conflict Theory Sexuality: power differentials are present and where dominant groups actively work to promote their worldview as well as their economic interests. Dominant groups (in this instance, heterosexuals) - traditional marriage and the nuclear family— to win out over what they see as the intrusion of a secular, individually driven worldview. For gay and lesbian activists, legal marriage is a fundamental right that cannot be denied based on sexual orientation (a precedent: the 1960s legalization of formerly forbidden interracial marriages). Legal marriage: financial entitlements, (like Social Security benefits and medical insurance. Symbolic Interactionism Focus on the meanings associated with sexuality and with sexual orientation. “Femininity” is devalued -> adopting such traits are subject to ridicule (especially true for boys or men). Masculinity is the symbolic norm -> heterosexuality normalcy. The American Psychological Association (APA) from homosexuality as “abnormal”, “deviant disorder”, “pathological” (in 1973) to a “normal aspect of human sexuality”. Cooley’s “looking-glass self” -> self develops as a result of our interpretation and evaluation of the responses of others. -> A negative self-image, or worse, self-hate -> experiencing high levels of social rejection; high levels of depression and suicide attempts. Feminism (some aspects) Rape: symbol of power and violence, state of fear. Sexual harassment: undermining dignity of an individual (workplace); preventing her from earning a living. Criminologists’ / men’s view: rapists are pathological people; precipitated by women.. Libertarian and socialist perspectives Pornography: women as objects -> ideology promoting sexual violence / male power. “Pornography -> theory / rape -> practice”. Turkish “erotic” cinema Queer Theory An interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies questioning society’s rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and the manner to think about sexual orientation. Rejecting the effects of labeling -> embracing the word “queer” and reclaimed it for their own purposes. The need for a more flexible and fluid conceptualization of sexuality—one that allows for change, negotiation, and freedom. Dichotomic classification (heterosexual – homosexual) mirrors other oppressive schemas surrounding gender and race (black versus white, male versus female). Sexuality as deeply embedded in a matrix of gender meanings and gender differentials – Many meanings.