Education And Poverty Reduction Strategies PDF

Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Edited by Simeon Maile  5 Education for poverty alleviation: Myth or reality?...

Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Edited by Simeon Maile  5 Education for poverty alleviation: Myth or reality? Joe Teffo The purpose of this chapter is to share ideas on poverty and approaches to its alleviation, especially through education. Consequently, this paper makes strong statements and tries to argue its case from the perspective of the poor. It argues for a liberatory education that is underscored by an African Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za philosophy of education that will assist Africa in its quest for self-reliance and a flourishing future. The positions taken and arguments advanced are not necessarily new and may be found in the current development literature. In addition, the recommended strategies and solutions are not comprehensive and may just be one prespective. Other positions and arguments may be just as valid. Above all, the views expressed in this chapter are of an African philosopher, not an economist. Aspects of poverty Terms such as ‘poverty eradication’ and ‘poverty alleviation’ are often used interchangeably. Before discussing the causes, aspects, policies and approaches to either eradicating or alleviating poverty, it is important to distinguish what these terms imply. While absolute poverty can be eradicated, relative poverty can only be alleviated because what is minimally accepted today may vary over time, from rural to urban areas and from country to country. The aim, of course, should always be poverty eradication and not alleviation. Relative poverty also varies with levels of economic development, and with the perceptions and expectations of the majority in terms of what is considered minimally acceptable. For example, while clean and processed piped water may be a minimum acceptable standard of living in a city, it may not be a minimum requirement in a village. Similarly, while possessing a telephone may be a minimum necessity in a country such as the USA, it may not be a minimum requirement in India or South Africa. Likewise, while internet connections may not be a minimum necessity in these countries today, 68  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION they may become a minimum necessity in ten years (Cherian 2007). While addressing both absolute and relative poverty, this paper intends to focus on relative poverty because it is more prevalent in the cities of South Africa. The poor experience poverty in real terms. They experience poverty in their everyday lives, lack the basic resources to meet their basic needs such as clothing and shelter, and, most importantly, have lost their self-esteem. As is commonly understood, poverty is not restricted to physical needs. It also results in inadequate social functioning. Left unabated, it can lead to national instability and insecurity. Essentially poverty has three closely interrelated aspects: poverty of money, poverty of access and poverty of power. These make the working, living and social environments of the poor extremely Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za insecure and severely limit the options available to improve their lives. Without choices and security, breaking the cycle of poverty becomes virtually impossible and leads to the marginalisation and alienation of the poor from society (Cherian 2007). Towards self-empowerment While the issue of poverty has been the direct or indirect focus of development initiatives since the end of the colonial era (1940s to 1950s), it has gained prominence only in the last two to three decades. Two basic levels or types of poverty are identified in the development literature: absolute poverty and relative poverty. Simply put, absolute poverty is defined as the cost of the minimum necessities needed to sustain human life. At the time of writing, The World Bank regarded people earning less than US$1 a day (in 1993 purchasing power parity) as being absolutely poor. Relative poverty is defined as the minimum economic, social, political and cultural goods needed to maintain an acceptable way of life in a particular society. These are relative and contentious concepts and what I seek to provide is merely a working definition. After several attempts, interventions and experiments, foreign aid to Africa has failed to ignite sustainable economic growth and poverty alleviation. This could be due to mismanagement or sheer greed and corruption, which are endemic to the continent. For too many Africans, their quality of life is currently worse than it was 30 years ago. Rather than looking to outsiders for answers, the key to poverty alleviation in Africa is more likely to 69  EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: ISSUES OF POLICY COHERENCE come from local entrepreneurship underscored by philosophical negritude, Ujamaa (Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere’s vision of socialism) and Black Consciousness. This is however often thwarted by government actions and multinational agencies such as the IMF that make it difficult, if not impossible, to start and grow the World Bank. Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in economic development and self- reliance. Entrepreneurial activity creates wealth, increases in the GDP and quality of life. Therefore, entrepreneurship should be an integral part of our curricula from elementary school. This would go a long way towards alleviating the frustrations experienced by graduates who have degrees but cannot get employment. All government initiatives aimed at the acceleration Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za of skills acquisition could also inform the development of a new curriculum. Therefore, an appropriate culture and work ethic should be infused through the schooling system rather than waiting for problems to manifest before seeking solutions. Creative and effective leadership and management are indispensable prerequisites for the success of education. Transforming societies through education Frantz Fanon has warned the African people before the dawn of independence in Africa that ‘during the colonial period the people are called upon to fight against oppression; after national liberation, they are called upon to fight against poverty, illiteracy, and underdevelopment. The struggle, they say, goes on. The people realise that life is an unending contest’ (Fanon 1963: 94). However, an observation of what is currently happening in South Africa makes one think that the 1994 national elections was a kind of a social contract in which the governed surrendered their liberty to the legislators for the purpose of development and nation building. It seems that since the ‘social contract’ was signed through the ballot box, the state has responded to national calls only if they are expressed from within the ruling elite – not outside it and never against it. The national calls for the provision of HIV/AIDS drugs, criticism of the new educational curricula and the provision of housing are a few examples of national cries for empowerment. The voting exercise was the completion of one phase and at the same time the beginning of another phase of the struggle – the struggle for empowerment and development. During this phase, people should be the 70  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION agents of change as well as monitors and providers of the checks and balances for the delivery of services; while politicians should listen to them and act accordingly. As evidence has abundantly proven, struggling masses cannot be fooled by false promises. It has always been an integral part of struggle ideology to transform societies through education. Perhaps even in the early days of the South African resistance movement people already knew Francis Bacon’s dictum that knowledge is power. Truly, knowledge, no less than virtue, should be its own reward, and all without exception should aspire to it. Pan-Africanist leaders in the early 1900s called for the eradication of the colonial education system. Whereas they were philosophically united in Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za making and heeding the call, they did not, however, share a common vision of how to do it and most importantly what to replace it with. From all the calls, a common thread that could be detected was ‘people’s education for people’s power’. If you cast a glance backwards you will notice that similar calls were made in South Africa in 1980s by the National Educational Policy Initiative (NEPI). Hence my contention that there is not much that is peculiar to South Africa in terms of educational policy innovations. South Africa’s failures share some commonality with the rest of the continent. In this connection Seleti writes: A critical reappraisal of South Africa’s experience in education vis-à-vis the rest of the continent does not conclude that it has been a miracle. Curriculum 2005 continues but under severe criticism and only falling short of declaring it a flop. The higher education reforms are yet to happen. So far institutions of higher learning have undertaken several restructuring exercises and there is a sense of fatigue setting in. Over the last nine years of post-apartheid South Africa, higher education appears to have experienced more of a mirage than a miracle. (2001: 2) All nationalist leaders across generations have perceived education as an agent of transformation, development and social change. Good education, according to them, should do more than pass on the norms, values and knowledge necessary for a creative and conscientious citizen whose ethos is rooted in the changing African culture. The young are the reservoirs as well as the transmitters of culture, and those charged with nurturing them should be mindful that they would draw good dividends from them if they 71  EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: ISSUES OF POLICY COHERENCE show commitment and sacrifice in the course of their nurturing. It is in this context that Paolo Freire’s banking concept of education should be revisited. Ajayi et al. also assert that ‘the young are trained to acquire knowledge, skills and aptitudes necessary both for the preserving and defending of the basic institutions and values of society, as well as for adapting these to meet changing circumstances and challenges’ (1992: 678). As the continent seeks to regenerate itself, politicians, intellectuals and Africanist thinkers should take stock of what preceded their initiatives and, most importantly, what made them fail. Many African countries have quality education systems in place. What is lacking, however, is an enabling environment for teaching and learning due to intractable conflicts with an Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za attendant economic collapse. Political stability and economic viability are therefore necessary conditions for transforming education into a vital agent for social transformation. In South Africa the situation is more complex, but fairly similar to those in the rest of the continent. Whereas there is political stability and a robust economy, at least for now, the playing field is not yet level. In higher education discourse it is common to hear people mention the following in the context of government funding: Earmarked and redress funds. Increases in and distribution of government higher-education funds. Redistribution of government subsidies. (Cloete & Bunting 2000) It is not sufficient to come up with elaborate curriculum changes while the educational philosophy underpinning the system smacks of the racial past, privileged versus underprivileged and resourced versus the under-resourced. One has to pause and take a critical look at the trafficking of children of the black elite to cities, and the lot of those who remain behind. Something profound is not being tackled, and there is little hope that those who should speak in favour of transforming schools will do so, since they are abandoning the townships and rural areas. It is not the merits or otherwise of Curriculum 2005 or outcomes-based education that are being contested, but rather the philosophy that should imbue and guide education transformation in South Africa. It is not the size of the budget, but rather what the budget is being used for. It is not about the number of staff members, but rather about the quality, qualification and the 72  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION work ethic of those staff members. A cohesive force or spirit that drives this transformation, a force rooted in the African experience, is required. Until such time that this issue is addressed, we shall continue to flaunt our egos, pretending that South Africa is an exception to the rest of the continent. The quest for a liberatory education In all fairness to policy-makers, educationists and ideologues, a new paradigm in education began to evolve around 1994. However, the process has been disappointingly slow, primarily because of our historical past and ideological differences. The common thread that runs through all the debates is that Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za education should seek to maximise human potential through facilitating lifelong learning towards a safe, sustained and prosperous South Africa for all. With regards to this, Slabbert writes: The human being created with incalculable potential already present by birth, is central to this paradigm This potential can only be maximised by the learners themselves through a process of lifelong learning when they are continually challenged with real life problems above their ability, which they have to solve themselves. Since no one can learn for or on behalf of the learner, this lifelong learning process can only be facilitated – something completely new to education! (Although some even claim that they know what it is). This new ‘inside-out’ paradigm (potential inside the learner has to come out) is the complete opposite of the old ‘outside-in’ paradigm (knowledge outside is imparted into the learner). (2001: 290–291) The introduction of the Western system of education in colonial Africa was underpinned by two primary purposes: (1) vocational education aimed at serving the capitalist interest of producing skilled labourers to service industry, and (2) theoretical/academic education which produced graduates who did not and could not challenge the political status quo and white domination. Religious conversion at the advent of colonialism created a class of converts who served as a buffer zone between the missionaries and the indigenous people. In many ways the converted facilitated the process of political domination and de-culturisation. There was, at the time, an uncritical assimilation of the doctrines and political ideologies which were not consistent with the cultures 73  EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: ISSUES OF POLICY COHERENCE in which they were located. It was Aristotle who averred that an uncritical or unexamined life is not worth living. It is true, therefore, that both education and religion at the time were intended to facilitate the colonisation enterprise, and so-called ‘enlightened’ Africans were used as pioneers or midwives of a new culture which they enthusiastically embraced and zealously advocated (Seleti 2001). Recognising the efficacy of the Western system of education and Christian religions, and the attendant consequences of deculturalisation, alienation and subtle subjugation, the Africanist movement espoused the right of every African child to be taught, learn, read and write in his or her own language as well as in the language of the coloniser. A universal principle that all children Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za up to the age of 16 were to receive free education was adopted by Africanist movements in 1945 (Seleti 2001). Effectively, the Africanist movement adopted and propagated the right of the African child to study as a central part of the nationalist struggle philosophy. Under extreme oppression the quest for liberation manifested in a cadre of intellectuals who in their speeches and writing conscientised people about the significance of education, especially one rooted in their culture. But, as alluded to earlier, some intellectuals served to bolster the machinery that was oppressing the masses. They used their education to establish a stratum of the elite that perceived itself as different from the peasantry. Such a class is already emerging in South Africa. In this connection, Seiko Toure, the first president of Guinea Conackry, considered the ‘political leader as a representative of culture’, yet at the same time confessed that some Western- educated intellectuals were suffering from a moral, intellectual and cultural superiority complex towards their fellow colonised and that they required mental liberation to be effective in serving the people in the struggle against colonialism (Toure 1979: 601–616). It is thus clear that the emerging political elite and captains of industry in South Africa require ‘mental liberation’. After liberation from colonising powers, political leaders saw education as a vital instrument for development and mental decolonisation. Emphasis was placed on elementary education, improved secondary schools, teacher training colleges and the establishment of African universities (Seleti 2001). From 1960 to 1980 Africa experienced the most dynamic and phenomenal expansion in education. Most of the pioneers and torch-bearers were graduates from the University of Nairobi in Kenya, Makerere in Uganda and Fort Hare in South 74  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION Africa. In his opening address to the interim University Council of Ghana in 1961 Kwame Nkrumah declared: A very heavy responsibility is entrusted to you. The whole of Ghana depends to a very considerable extent on the success of our programme for higher education and research. It is necessary that we therefore go about the task of organising the university in the most resolute manner. (Seleti 2001) All over Africa, the struggles for liberation were coupled with mental decolonisation and empowerment. So, as the nationalists were waging wars in the bush, intellectuals and academics were doing the same in the lecture halls and marketplaces. People realised that their liberation would be hollow Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za and meaningless if there were no other members in society equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary for the successful governance of their countries. Political prisoners therefore continued to study while they were incarcerated. The South African government however realised that it would not win in the struggle to perpetuate the status quo as long as prisoners were receiving education and the so-called privilege to study was retracted. It was only after some political wrangling and international pressure that the government succumbed and allowed prisoners to study again. Former South African president Nelson Mandela and Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe are, among others, prison graduates. In 1652 the Dutch who had settled at the Cape introduced a European type of education. As South African Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd conceded centuries later, this type of education was, in broad terms, intended to produce semi-literate and semi-educated Africans that would best serve the interests of European settlers. For colonialism to succeed it needed Africans themselves to promote the system to their fellow Africans. In this endeavour there was commonality between secular and missionary schools. They all sought to proselytise the African into aspects of Western culture, such as history, medicine and religion. Europe was the point of reference in all such studies and the African existential experience was excluded from the educational landscape. Hence the African nationalists’ contention that this type of education was essentially a strategy for deculturalisation, alienation and under-development. To this end South Africa developed an odious system called Bantu Education, which was introduced in 1954. Ironically, it 75  EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: ISSUES OF POLICY COHERENCE was the inception of this system that provided the irreversible impetus for the liberation of a black people in South Africa. The initiatives of nationalist leaders were given further impetus by the resolutions of the Unesco Conference on the development of higher education in Africa held in Tananarive, Madagascar, in 1962. The liberations in many respects resembled and encapsulated the philosophy that was to guide Pan-Africanism and Black Consciousness in the future. African scholars easily won the support of political leaders when it came to the question of transforming education. Seiko Toure got to the heart of the matter when he declared, ‘we must Africanise our education and get rid of the negative features of misconceptions inherited from an educational system designed to Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za serve colonial purposes’ (1979: 625). Former president of Tanzania and illustrious pioneer of African education, Julius Nyerere, formulated a far-sighted philosophy of African education that he endeavoured to implement with a fair measure of success in 1971. Tanzania is arguably the only African country where an African language (Swahili) was used as a medium of instruction in education and as the primary language in business. Schooled in English in a Western education system, Nyerere realised that there could be no true liberation until people could express their own views and knowledge in their mother tongue. Politically, it was also necessary to articulate and advocate for an African identity and cultural reawakening through people’s home language. Seeing language as a carrier and a mediator of culture, it became evident to Nyerere that African culture would remain underdeveloped unless a conscious decision was taken to teach and learn in indigenous languages (Namwera 1990). The South African Constitution recognises 11 official languages, with sign language belatedly recognised as a twelth. This constitutional principle of multilingualism exists only on paper. When the independence euphoria was at its peak, some African politicians in parliament tried to speak in their home languages. The mode of dress was also somewhat adjusted to appear more African. However, without being advised otherwise, those who ventured to be different finally opted for conformism. The reason for this is possibly that it is too taxing to be different, and perhaps (more significantly) because South Africans, blacks in particular, take their cue for life from the West rather than from Africa. The African Renaissance initiative would hence remain illusive 76  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION as long as the so-called ‘power house’ of Africa was mimicking the West and was prepared to ‘de-culturise’ itself in order to be acceptable to the West. Though Nyerere’s initiatives failed in some respects, much can be learnt from them – and their failures. For example, in his Education for Self-Reliance Policy, he stressed the role of education to achieve his goal of African socialism as outlined in the Arusha Declaration of 1967. Significant in this regard is the fact that while Nyerere comprehended and appreciated Karl Marx’s idea of socialism, he simultaneously recognised that unadulterated Marxist socialism would not succeed in Africa. The system had to be adapted to African soil. This valuable lesson haunts us as we continuously falter with Eurocentric models and policies that are not amenable to our situation. By this reasoning, Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Nyerere could be declared one of the more pragmatic exponents of the African Renaissance in education. In wrapping up this section, let me enumerate some thought patterns and positions that characterised education transformation discourse in Africa at the time. The following objectives are captured by Ajayi et al. in Education and Social Change (1999: 686): To integrate Western education into the life of the family and the community. To end the elitism of colonial education through a programme of universal primary education that will integrate Western and traditional systems of education. To bridge the gap between the educated elite and the masses through a better appreciation by the educated of the accumulated knowledge and wisdom that existed within traditional societies. To inculcate a spirit of work and service to the community in the process of education. Recommendations Education is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. It is a vehicle for bringing about changes in knowledge, values and behavioural patterns; thereby whetting the appetite for the search of eternal truths. Hence, it must be a priority to re-orient educational systems and curricula towards the aforesaid needs and, most importantly, the attainment of democracy, human dignity and peace. Effectively, education in the contemporary era must 77  EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES: ISSUES OF POLICY COHERENCE provide learners with the skills, perspectives, values and knowledge to lead fruitful and enriching lives in their communities (Unesco 2002). The Unesco position paper ‘Enhancing Global Sustainability’, prepared for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (third session), lists some of the following goals, which (if South Africa were to adopt them) would go a long way towards effectively transforming education on the road towards poverty alleviation. I have included some of my own recommendations that are informed by my own experience: To expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. To ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, living under difficult Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to completely free and compulsory good quality primary education. To ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes. To achieve a 50% improvement in the levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, as well as equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. To eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieve gender equality by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement of basic education of a good quality. To improve every aspect of the quality of education, and ensure excellence so that recognised and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. To introduce technology-assisted education. Globalisation fundamentally affects societies, economies and cultures. It gives the poor exposure to and the hope of extricating themselves from the poverty-trap. Include in the curriculum Batho Pele (‘People First’) principles, religious education and the philosophy of Botho/Ubuntu which has at its heart the promises of the Freedom Charter. Shelter, water, sanitation, human dignity and equality of the human species were the Charter’s key words and rallying ideological goals (Teffo 2006). Good character formation should start early and, where applicable, role models in society should be used as facilitators in order to nurture a culture of responsible citizenship. To this end, pilot schools could be selected and ring-fenced in order to test the 78  EDUCATION FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION efficacy of the system. Lessons could also be learned from similar models from the East and West. Promote and support institutional capacity with respect to human resources development and culture change. These initiatives would yield better- equipped graduates that would help alleviate poverty in their respective communities. Skills training could also assist those who are outside of the formal educational set-up. Programmes such as Adult Basic Education and Training should be supported by all the tiers of government. In this digital age, access to information is vital for the purposes of wealth creation and poverty alleviation. The idea of multi-purpose centres and i-communities are most welcome. Such programmes and initiatives will greatly contribute to the empowerment of the poor and marginalised. Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za References Ajayi AJF, Habte KS & Wagaw T (1992) ‘Education and social change’. In I Hrbek (Ed.) General history of Africa III: Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century. Oxford: James Currey Cloete C & Bunting I (2000) Higher education transformation: Assessing performance in South Africa. Pretoria: Centre for Higher Education Transformation Cherian L (2007) Poverty alleviation. Unpublished paper, University of Limpopo, Polokwane Fanon F (1963) The wretched of the earth. New York: Groove Press Namwera L (Ed.) (1990) Towards African Christian liberation. Nairobi: St Paul Publications Seleti Y (2001) Has South Africa experienced a miracle or a mirage in its education system since 1994? Issues from a Pan-African perspective. Unpublished paper, Campbell Collection, University of Natal Slabbert JA (2001) Educational change: Is it possible? African Education Review 30(1&2) Teffo LJ (2006) African humanism in a globalizing world. In LJ Teffo & N Cloete (Eds) Indigenisation in a globalising world: An African perspective. Unpublished paper, University of Limpopo Press, Polokwane Toure S (1979) The political leader considered as representative of a culture. In JA Langley (Ed.) Ideologies of liberation in black Africa, 1856–1970. London: Rex Collings Unesco (2002) Enhancing global sustainability. Position paper and proposal prepared by committee for World Summit on Sustainable Development, New York, 25 March 79