Learning and Human Resource Development PDF

Learning and Human Resource Development NICOLAS T. MALLARI Learning Objectives 1. Define learning and list at least three learning principles 2. Describe the three broad categories of issues that should be considered to maximize learning 3. Identify and discuss several personal cha...

Learning and Human Resource Development NICOLAS T. MALLARI Learning Objectives 1. Define learning and list at least three learning principles 2. Describe the three broad categories of issues that should be considered to maximize learning 3. Identify and discuss several personal characteristics (such as ability, personality) that affect trainee learning 4. Identify and discuss the training design issues that can be used to maximize learning 5. Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of training, and how these can be used to maximize learning 6. Discuss how various individual differences affect the learning process 7. Discuss the value of adult learning theory to HRD interventions Learning defined Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment. Several aspects of this definition are important. First, the focus of learning is change, either by acquiring something new (like skill in conducting meetings) or modifying something that already exists (like a soldier becoming more accurate in shooting a rifle). Second, the change must be long-lasting before we can say learning has really occurred.  Third, the focus of learning can include behavior, cognitions, affect, or any combination of the three. Learning outcomes can be skill-based (climbing a utility pole), cognitive (procedures for applying for a research grant), or affective (becoming more safety conscious). Finally, learning results from an individual’s interaction with the environment. Learning does not include behavior changes attributable to physical maturation or a temporary condition (such as fatigue or drugs) Basic Learning Principles Contiguity—Objects that are experienced together tend to become associated with each other. For example, learning vocabulary in a foreign language usually involves pairing a new word with an object or picture of an object (like the German word Katze and a picture of a cat). The Law of Effect—the law of effect states that a behavior followed by a pleasurable consequence is likely to be repeated. Practice—Repeating the events in an association will increase the strength of the association. Maximizing Learning  Trainability. focuses on the trainee’s readiness to learn and combines the trainee’s level of ability and motivation with his or her perceptions of the work environment. A simple formula to convey this is: Trainability = f (Motivation × Ability ×Perceptions of the Work Environment) This formula illustrates that a trainee must have both the motivation and the ability to learn; if either is lacking, learning will not occur. The equation also shows that a very high level of one cannot completely overcome a very low level of the other. In addition, if employees perceive little support in the work environment for learning new knowledge or skills, they will be less likely to learn and use them.  Personality is the stable set of personal characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behavior. Personality traits that are related to employee learning include locus of control, the need for achievement, activity, independence, and sociability. Murray Barrick and Michael Mount reported the results of a meta-analysis showing that two personality dimensions— extraversion and openness to experience—are valid predictors of success in training.  Joseph Martocchio and Jane Webster found that an individual’s level of cognitive playfulness (which is in part the natural, imaginative, and exploratory approach a person brings to task performance and learning) affects learning, mood, and satisfaction with training. They also found that individuals with low levels of cognitive playfulness are affected more by positive feedback than individuals with higher levels of cognitive playfulness. Training Design Training design involves adapting the learning environment to maximize learning. Training design issues include (1) the conditions of practice that influence learning and (2) the factors that impact retention of what is learned. Conditions of Practice Conditions of Practice. At least six issues have been studied that relate to practice and learning. They include active practice, massed versus spaced practice sessions, whole versus part learning, overlearning, knowledge of results, and task sequencing. Active practice suggests that learners should be given an opportunity to repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge being learned. Example, if a paramedic is learning how to operate the “jaws of life” (to extract passengers from vehicles damaged in accidents), the training sessions should include multiple opportunities for the paramedic to operate the “jaws.”  Mental practice. the “cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical movement,” can improve task performance. A meta-analysis of many studies concluded that mental practice is effective for both cognitive and physical tasks (though more so for cognitive tasks). Massed versus spaced practice sessions. These involve whether to conduct training in one session or divide it into segments separated by a period of time. For example, is it better to study for an examination over a period of several days (spaced practice) or in one cram session (massed practice)?  Whole versus part learning. This concerns the size of the unit to be learned, that is, should trainees practice an entire task (or study certain material as a whole), or should the task or material be learned in separate parts or chunks? Gagné argued that procedural material (material organized into a series of steps) should be analyzed and divided into subunits, with the trainees mastering each subunit before performing the entire procedure. For example, operating a chain saw involves adding fuel, holding it properly, starting it, making various cuts, and turning it off. Given that these subtasks are interrelated, it makes sense that they be learned together. The task of supervising others, however, includes subtasks such as scheduling, evaluating employee performance, disciplining, planning, and delegating.  Overlearning. is defined as practice beyond the point at which the material or task is mastered. For example, an instructor teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in a first-aid course would be using overlearning if trainees were required to repeatedly practice the CPR procedure even after they had successfully “revived” a training dummy.  The rationale in favor of overlearning is threefold: First, overlearning may improve performance in a variety of different situations Second, overlearning provides additional practice in using a skill or knowledge when there is little opportunity for doing so in the job setting. For example, overlearning the procedure to handle an engine flameout would be useful in pilot training because pilots don’t often face this situation when flying. Third, overlearning should make what is learned more automatic, thereby improving performance in stressful or emergency situations. For instance, soldiers repeatedly practice their maneuvers and tasks, so when orders come to attack, these tasks will be second nature and can be performed quickly and correctly Transfer of Training Positive transfer occurs when job performance improves as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when there is no change in job performance as a result of training. Negative transfer occurs when job performance worsens as a result of training.  Identical Elements. The principle of identical elements, first proposed by Thorndike and Woodworth in 1901, suggests that the more similar the training and the performance situations are in terms of the stimuli present and responses required, the more likely it is that training transfer will occur. For example, if customer service representatives are expected to handle complaints from angry, impatient customers, practice with such customers (possibly via role playing) can improve the transfer of training. Physical fidelity is the extent to which the conditions of the training program, such as equipment, tasks, and surroundings, mirror those in the performance situation.  General Principles. the general principles theory suggests that learning fundamental elements of a task will ensure transfer from training. Stimulus Variability. Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a variety of stimuli, such as using multiple examples of a concept or involving the trainee in several different practice situations. For example, stimulus variability is increased when clothing trainees are required to practice making buttonholes in a variety of fabrics, rather than in only one or two types of fabric. Stimulus variability has been found to increase training transfer.  Support in the Work Environment. The extent to which trainees perceive support for using newly learned behavior or knowledge on the job affects transfer of training. For example, if a supervisor who is trying to become more participative is ridiculed by peers and receives the cold shoulder from subordinates, it is unlikely that this person will continue to use these skills. Supervisory support is an important aspect of work environment support. Components such as encouragement to attend training, goal setting, reinforcement, and behavior modeling have all been shown to increase transfer.  Opportunity to perform. the extent to which a trainee is provided with or actively obtains work experiences relevant to tasks for which he or she was trained. A study by Lim and Johnson asked trainees to list reasons for the lack of transfer from an organizational training program. The number one reason cited for low transfer (listed by over 64 percent of trainees!) was “lack of opportunity to apply on the job. LEARNING STRATEGIES AND STYLES 1. Concrete Experience (CE)—an intuitive preference for learning through direct experience, emphasizing interpersonal relations and feeling as opposed to thinking. For example, someone using this mode to learn about job politics would personally use various political tactics in different group situations to get a sense of how each one feels, while also gauging others’ responses during each interaction.  Abstract Conceptualization (AC)—a preference for learning by thinking about an issue in theoretical terms. For example, a person using this mode to learn about job politics analyzes political tactics and their implications, perhaps consulting or constructing a model that includes abstract representations of the components of political activities.  Reflective Observation (RO)—a preference to learn by watching and examining different points of view to achieve an understanding. For example, people using the RO mode to learn about job politics observe others involved in political activities and reflect on what they’ve seen from a variety of perspectives.  Active Experimentation (AE)—a preference for learning something by actually doing it and judging its practical value. For example, someone using this mode to learn about job politics might experiment with various political tactics, determining their effectiveness by the amount of influence they had on other people. Learning Strategies 1. Rehearsal strategies (e.g., repeating items in a list; underlining text in an article; copying notes) 2. Elaboration strategies (e.g., forming a mental image; taking notes, paraphrasing, or summarizing new material) 3. Organizational strategies (e.g., grouping or ordering information to be learned; outlining an article; creating a hierarchy of material) 4. Comprehension monitoring strategies (e.g., self-questioning) 5. Affective strategies (e.g., increasing alertness; relaxation; finding ways to reduce test anxiety) Gagne’s Theory of Instruction The Gagné (or Gagné-Briggs) theory of instruction focuses on the kinds of things people learn and how they learn them. The theory argues that different learning outcomes are learned in different ways; in other words, there is not one best way to learn everything. Gagné proposed that human performance could be divided into five categories, each of which requires a different set of conditions for maximizing learning, retention, and transfer. The categories are: Verbal Information Verbal Information or declarative knowledge, involves the ability to state or declare something, such as a fact or an idea. Reciting the RA 10029 or the Psychology law and bills of rights are examples of verbal information. Intellectual Skills Intellectual skills, sometimes called procedural knowledge, are the rules, concepts, and procedures that we follow to accomplish tasks. Intellectual skills may be simple or complex. English grammar is an example of an intellectual skill. Cognitive Strategies 3. Cognitive strategies, or strategic knowledge, are the skills used to control learning, thinking, and remembering. Cognitive strategies allow us to determine what procedural knowledge and verbal information we need to perform a task. For example, an IRS representative uses a cognitive strategy when selecting the auditing approach to take for a particular tax audit. Attitudes Attitudes are internal states of mind that can influence which of several behaviors we choose. Attitudes are not learned simply by hearing facts from others. For instance, is it likely that your attitude toward nuclear power is going to change just because someone tells you it is good or bad? Something additional, such as reinforcement or personal experience regarding the object of the attitude, is needed for learning to occur. Even so, attitudes are often highly resistant to change. Motor Skills Motor skills involve using our bodies to manipulate something. Writing, icing a cake, and balancing a tray of dishes are examples of motor skills. Motor skills are learned by practicing the movement, and in doing so the quality of the movement should improve.