Short Story Overview PDF

Short story For the Gershwin piano and violin piece, see Short Story than it was in Poe’s era. Other definitions place the max- (music). imum word count of the short story at anywhere from...

Short story For the Gershwin piano and violin piece, see Short Story than it was in Poe’s era. Other definitions place the max- (music). imum word count of the short story at anywhere from 1,000 to 4,000. In contemporary usage, the term short A short story is a piece of prose fiction, which can be story most often refers to a work of fiction no shorter than 1,000 and no longer than 20,000 words. Stories read in a single setting. Emerging from earlier oral storytelling traditions in the 17th century, the short story of fewer than 1,000 words are sometimes referred to as “short short stories”, or "flash fiction.” has grown to encompass a body of work so diverse as to defy easy characterization. At its most prototypical As a point of reference for the genre writer, the Science the short story features a small cast of named characters, Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America define short story and focuses on a self-contained incident with the intent length in the Nebula Awards for science fiction submis- of evoking a “single effect” or mood. In doing so, short sion guidelines as having a word count of fewer than stories make use of plot, resonance, and other dynamic 7,500. components to a far greater degree than is typical of an Longer stories that cannot be called novels are sometimes anecdote, yet to a far lesser degree than a novel. While considered “novellas” or novelettes and, like short stories, the short story is largely distinct from the novel, authors may be collected into the more marketable form of “col- of both generally draw from a common pool of literary lections”, often containing previously unpublished sto- techniques. ries. Sometimes, authors who do not have the time or Short stories have no set length. In terms of word count money to write a novella or novel decide to write short there is no official demarcation between an anecdote, a stories instead, working out a deal with a popular website short story, and a novel. Rather, the form’s parameters or magazine to publish them for profit. are given by the rhetorical and practical context in which a given story is produced and considered, so that what constitutes a short story may differ between genres, coun- 2 Characteristics tries, eras, and commentators. Like the novel, the short story’s predominant shape reflects the demands of the available markets for publication, and the evolution of the As a concentrated form of narrative prose fiction, the form seems closely tied to the evolution of the publishing short story has been theorised through the traditional el- industry and the submission guidelines of its constituent ements of dramatic structure: exposition (the introduc- houses. tion of setting, situation and main characters), compli- cation (the event that introduces the conflict), rising ac- The short story has been considered both an apprentice- tion, crisis (the decisive moment for the protagonist and ship form preceding more lengthy works, and a crafted his commitment to a course of action), climax (the point form in its own right, collected together in books of sim- of highest interest in terms of the conflict and the point ilar length, price, and distribution as novels. Short story with the most action) and resolution (the point when the writers may define their works as part of the artistic and conflict is resolved). Because of their length, short stories personal expression of the form. They may also attempt may or may not follow this pattern. For example, modern to resist categorization by genre and fixed formation. short stories only occasionally have an exposition, more typically beginning in the middle of the action (in me- dias res). As with longer stories, plots of short stories 1 Length also have a climax, crisis, or turning point. However, the endings of many short stories are abrupt and open and may or may not have a moral or practical lesson. As with See the article novella for related debate about length. any art form, the exact characteristics of a short story will Determining what exactly separates a short story from vary by creator. Short stories tend to be less complex longer fictional formats is problematic. A classic defi- than novels. Usually a short story focuses on one inci- nition of a short story is that one should be able to read dent; has a single plot, a single setting, and a small num- it in one sitting, a point most notably made in Edgar Al- ber of characters; and covers a short period of time. The lan Poe's essay "Thomas Le Moineau (Le Moile)" (1846). modern short story form emerged from oral story-telling Interpreting this standard nowadays is problematic, since traditions, the brief moralistic narratives of parables and the expected length of “one sitting” may now be briefer fables, and the prose anecdote, all of these being forms 1 2 3 HISTORY of a swiftly sketched situation that quickly comes to its French translation). point. With the rise of the realistic novel, the short story The mid 17th century in France saw the development of evolved in a parallel tradition, with some of its first dis- a refined short novel, the “nouvelle”, by such authors as tinctive examples in the tales of E. T. A. Hoffmann. The Madame de Lafayette. In the 1690s, traditional fairy tales character of the form developed particularly with authors began to be published (one of the most famous collections known for their short fiction, either by choice (they wrote was by Charles Perrault). The appearance of Antoine nothing else) or by critical regard, which acknowledged Galland's first modern translation of the Thousand and the focus and craft required in the short form. An exam- One Nights (or Arabian Nights) (from 1704; another ple is Jorge Luis Borges, who won American fame with translation appeared in 1710–12) would have an enor- "The Garden of Forking Paths", published in the August mous influence on the 18th-century European short sto- 1948 Ellery Queen’s Mystery Magazine. Another exam- ries of Voltaire, Diderot and others. ple is O. Henry (author of "Gift of the Magi"), for whom the O. Henry Award is named. American examples in- clude Flannery O'Connor, John Cheever, and Raymond 3.2 1790–1850 Carver. There are early examples of short stories published sep- arately between 1790 and 1810, but the first true collec- 3 History tions of short stories appeared between 1810 and 1830 in several countries around the same period. 3.1 Predecessors The first short stories in the United Kingdom were gothic tales like Richard Cumberland's “remarkable narrative” “The Poisoner of Montremos” (1791). Great novelists Short stories date back to oral storytelling traditions like Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens also wrote some which originally produced epics such as Homer's Iliad and short stories. Odyssey. Oral narratives were often told in the form of rhyming or rhythmic verse, often including recurring sec- One of the earliest short stories in the United States was tions or, in the case of Homer, Homeric epithets. Such Charles Brockden Brown's “Somnambulism” from 1805. stylistic devices often acted as mnemonics for easier re- Washington Irving wrote mysterious tales including "Rip call, rendition and adaptation of the story. Short sections van Winkle" (1819) and "The Legend of Sleepy Hol- of verse might focus on individual narratives that could low" (1820). Nathaniel Hawthorne published the first be told at one sitting. The overall arc of the tale would part of his Twice-Told Tales in 1837. Edgar Allan Poe emerge only through the telling of multiple such sections. wrote his tales of mystery and imagination between 1832 and 1849. Classic stories are "The Fall of the House of Fables, succinct tales with an explicit “moral,” were said Usher", "The Tell-Tale Heart", "The Cask of Amontil- by the Greek historian Herodotus to have been invented lado", "The Pit and the Pendulum", and the first detective in the 6th century BCE by a Greek slave named Aesop, story, "The Murders in the Rue Morgue". In "The Philos- though other times and nationalities have also been given ophy of Composition" (1846) Poe argued that a literary for him. These ancient fables are today known as Aesop’s work should be short enough for a reader to finish in one Fables. sitting. The other ancient form of short story, the anecdote, was In Germany, the first collection of short stories was by popular under the Roman Empire. Anecdotes functioned Heinrich von Kleist in 1810 and 1811. The Brothers as a sort of parable, a brief realistic narrative that em- Grimm published their first volume of collected fairy bodies a point. Many surviving Roman anecdotes were tales in 1812. E. T. A. Hoffmann followed with his own collected in the 13th or 14th century as the Gesta Ro- original fantasy tales, of which "The Nutcracker and the manorum. Anecdotes remained popular in Europe well Mouse King" (1816) is the most famous. into the 18th century, when the fictional anecdotal letters of Sir Roger de Coverley were published. In France, Prosper Mérimée wrote Mateo Falcone in 1829. In Europe, the oral story-telling tradition began to de- velop into written stories in the early 14th century, most notably with Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron. Both of these books 3.3 1850–1900 are composed of individual short stories (which range from farce or humorous anecdotes to well-crafted liter- In the latter 19th century, the growth of print magazines ary fictions) set within a larger narrative story (a frame and journals created a strong demand for short fiction of story), although the frame-tale device was not adopted between 3,000 and 15,000 words. by all writers. At the end of the 16th century, some of In the United Kingdom, Thomas Hardy wrote dozens of the most popular short stories in Europe were the darkly short stories, including "The Three Strangers" (1883), "A tragic "novella" of Matteo Bandello (especially in their Mere Interlude" (1885) and "Barbara of the House of 3.4 1900–1945 3 Grebe" (1890). Rudyard Kipling published short story Tek Singh are aesthetic masterpieces which continue to collections for grown-ups, e.g. Plain Tales from the give profound insight into the nature of human loss, vio- Hills (1888), as well as for children, e.g. The Jungle lence and devastation. Book (1894). In 1892 Arthur Conan Doyle brought the In India, Rabindranath Tagore published short stories, detective story to a new height with The Adventures of on the lives of the poor and oppressed such as peasants, Sherlock Holmes. H. G. Wells wrote his first science fic- Women and villagers under colonial misrule and exploita- tion stories in the 1880s. One of his best known is "The tion. Country of the Blind" (1904). In Poland, Bolesław Prus was the most important author In the United States, Herman Melville published his story of short stories. In 1888 he wrote "A Legend of Old collection The Piazza Tales in 1856. "The Celebrated Egypt". Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" was the title story of Mark Twain's first book one year later. In 1884, Machado de Assis, one of the majors novelist from Brazil Brander Matthews, the first American professor of dra- was the most important short story writer from his coun- matic literature, published The Philosophy of the Short- try at the time, under influences (among others) of Xavier Story. At that same year, Matthews was the first one to de Maistre, Lawrence Sterne, Guy de Maupassant. In name the emerging genre “short story”. Another theorist the end of the 19 th century the writer João do Rio be- of narrative fiction was Henry James. James wrote a lot of came popular by short stories about the bohemianism. short stories himself, including "The Real Thing" (1892), Writing about the former slaves, and very ironical about “Maud-Evelyn” and The Beast in the Jungle (1903). In nationalism, Lima Barreto died almost forgotten, but be- the 1890s Kate Chopin published short stories in several came very popular in the 20th century. magazines. In Portuguese literature, the major names of the time are The most prolific French author of short stories was Guy Almeida Garrett and the historian and novelist Alexandre de Maupassant. Stories like "Boule de Suif" (“Ball of Herculano. Still influential, Eça de Queiroz produced Fat”, 1880) and "L'Inutile Beauté" (“The Useless Beauty”, some short stories with a style influenced by Émile Zola, 1890) are good examples of French realism. Balzac and Dickens. In Russia, Ivan Turgenev gained recognition with his story collection A Sportsman’s Sketches. Nikolai Leskov 3.4 1900–1945 created his first short stories in the 1860s. Late in his life Fyodor Dostoyevski wrote "The Meek One" (1876) In the United Kingdom, periodicals like The Strand Mag- and "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" (1877), two sto- azine and Story-Teller contributed to the popularity of ries with great psychological and philosophical depth. the short story. Hector Hugh Munro (1870–1916), also Leo Tolstoy handled ethical questions in his short sto- known by his pen name of Saki, wrote satirical short sto- ries, for example in "Ivan the Fool" (1885), "How Much ries about Edwardian England. W. Somerset Maugham, Land Does a Man Need?" (1886) and "Alyosha the Pot" who wrote over a hundred short stories, was one of the (1905). The greatest specialist of the Russian short story most popular authors of his time. P. G. Wodehouse pub- however was Anton Chekhov. Classic examples of his re- lished his first collection of comical stories about valet alistic prose are "The Bet" (1889), “Ward No. 6” (1892), Jeeves in 1917. Many detective stories were written by and "The Lady with the Dog" (1899). Maxim Gorky's G. K. Chesterton, Agatha Christie and Dorothy L. Say- best known short story is "Twenty-six Men and a Girl" ers. Short stories by Virginia Woolf are "Kew Gardens" (1899). (1919) and “Solid Objects,” about a politician with men- The prolific Indian author of short stories Munshi Prem- tal problems. Graham Greene wrote his Twenty-One Sto- chand, pioneered the genre in the Hindustani language, ries between 1929 and 1954. A specialist of the short writing a substantial body of short stories and novels in a story was V. S. Pritchett, whose first collection appeared style characterized by realism and an unsentimental and in 1932. Arthur C. Clarke published his first science fic- authentic introspection into the complexities of Indian so- tion story, "Travel by Wire!" in 1937. ciety. Premchand's work, including his over 200 short In Ireland, James Joyce published his short story collec- stories (such as the story “Lottery”) and his novel Godaan tion Dubliners in 1914. These stories, written in a more remain substantial works. accessible style than his later novels, are based on careful A master of the short story, the Urdu language writer observation of the inhabitants of his birth city. Saadat Hasan Manto, is revered for his exceptional depth, In the first half of the 20th century, a number of high- irony and sardonic humour. The author of some 250 short profile American magazines such as The Atlantic stories, radio plays, essays, reminiscences and a novel, Monthly, Harper’s Magazine, The New Yorker, Scribner’s, Manto is widely admired for his analyses of violence, big- The Sat-urday Evening Post, Esquire, and The Bookman otry, prejudice and the relationships between reason and published short stories in each issue. The demand for unreason. Combining realism with surrealism and irony, quality short stories was so great and the money paid for Manto’s works such as the celebrated short story Toba such so well that F. Scott Fitzgerald repeatedly turned to short- 4 3 HISTORY story (as Matthews preferred to write it) writing to pay Stegner's short stories are primarily set in the Ameri- his numerous debts. His first collection Flappers and can West. Stephen King published many short stories Philosophers appeared in book form in 1920. William in men’s magazines in the 1960s and after. The 1970s Faulkner wrote over one hundred short stories. Go Down, saw the rise of the postmodern short story in the works Moses, a collection of seven stories, appeared in 1941. of Donald Barthelme and John Barth. Traditionalists in- Ernest Hemingway's concise writing style was perfectly cluding John Updike and Joyce Carol Oates maintained fit for shorter fiction. Stories like "A Clean, Well-Lighted significant influence on the form. Minimalism gained Place" (1926), "Hills Like White Elephants" (1927) and widespread influence in the 1980s, most notably in the "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1936) are only a few pages work of Raymond Carver and Ann Beattie. long, but carefully crafted. Dorothy Parker's bittersweet Canadian short story writers include Alice Munro, Mavis story “Big Blonde” debuted in 1929. A popular science Gallant, and Lynn Coady. fiction story is "Nightfall" by Isaac Asimov. In the United Kingdom, Daphne du Maurier wrote Katherine Mansfield from New Zealand wrote many short suspense stories like "The Birds" (1952) and "Don't Look stories between 1912 and her death in 1923. "The Doll’s Now" (1971). Roald Dahl was the master of the twist-in- House" (1922) treats the topic of social inequity. the-tale. Short story collections like Lamb to the Slaughter Two important authors of short stories in the German lan- (1953) and Kiss Kiss (1960) illustrate his dark humour. guage were Thomas Mann and Franz Kafka. In 1922 the In Italy, Italo Calvino published the short story collection latter wrote "A Hunger Artist", about a man who fasts for Marcovaldo, about a poor man in a city, in 1963. several days. In Brazil, the short story became popular among female Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (1892-1927) is called the Father writers like Clarice Lispector, Lygia Fagundes Telles, of the Japanese short story. Adélia Prado, who wrote about their society from a femi- In Brazil, the most famous modern short story writer is nine viewpoint, although the genre has great male writers Mário de Andrade. At the time, Paulistan writer António like Dalton Trevisan, Autran Dourado Moacyr Scliar and de Alcantâra Machado became very popular from his col- Carlos Heitor Cony too. Also, writing about poverty and lection of short stories titled, Brás, Bexiga e Barra Funda the favelas, João Antonio became a well known writer. (1928), about several Italian neighborhoods, but now he Other post-modern short fiction authors include writers is mostly read in just São Paulo. Also, novelist Graciliano Hilda Hilst and Caio Fernando Abreu. Detective litera- Ramos and poet Carlos Drummond de Andrade have sig- ture was led by Rubem Fonseca. It is also necessary to nificant short story works. mention João Guimarães Rosa, wrote short stories in the Portuguese writers like Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Florbela book Sagarana using a complex, experimental language Espanca and Fernando Pessoa wrote well-known short based on tales of oral traditional. stories, although their major genre was poetry. Portuguese writers like Virgílo Ferreira, Fernando Goncalves Namora and Sophia de Mello Breyner An- dresen are among the most influential short story writ- 3.5 After 1945 ers from 20th-century Portuguese language literature. Manuel da Silva Ramos is one of the most well-known names of postmodernism in the country. Nobel Prize- The period following World War II saw a great flower- winner José Saramago published few short stories, but ing of literary short fiction in the United States. The New became popular from his novels. Yorker continued to publish the works of the form’s lead- ing mid-century practitioners, including Shirley Jackson, The Angolan writer José Luandino Vieira is one of the whose story, "The Lottery", published in 1948, elicited most well-known writers from his country and has several the strongest response in the magazine’s history to that short stories. José Eduardo Agualusa is also increasingly time. Other frequent contributors during the last 1940s read in Portuguese-speaking countries. included John Cheever, John Steinbeck, Jean Stafford, Mozambican Mia Couto is a widely known writer of post and Eudora Welty. J. D. Salinger's Nine Stories (1953) ex- modern prose, and he is read even in non-Portuguese perimented with point of view and voice, while Flannery speaking countries. Other Mozambican writers such as O'Connor's story "A Good Man is Hard to Find" (1955) Suleiman Cassamo, Paulina Chiziane and Eduardo White reinvigorated the Southern Gothic style. Cultural and so- are gaining popularity with Portuguese-speakers too. cial identity played a considerable role in much of the short fiction of the 1960s. Philip Roth and Grace Pa- The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges is one of the most ley cultivated distinctive Jewish-American voices. Tillie famous writers of short stories in the Spanish language. Olsen’s "I Stand Here Ironing" (1961) adopted a con- "The Library of Babel" (1941) and "The Aleph" (1945) sciously feminist perspective. James Baldwin’s collection handle difficult subjects like infinity. Two of the most Going to Meet the Man (1965) told stories of African- representative writers of the Magical realism genre are American life. Frank O'Connor’s The Lonely Voice, an also widely known Argentinan short story writers: Adolfo exploration of the short story, appeared in 1963. Wallace Bioy Casares and Julio Cortázar.  5 The Uruguayan writer Juan Carlos Onetti is known as one Short films, often rewritten by other people, and of the most important magical realist writer from Latin even as feature-length films, such is the case of America. "Children of the Corn", "The Shawshank Redemp- In Colombia, the Nobel prize laureate author Gabriel tion", "The Birds", "Brokeback Mountain", "Who Garcia Marquez is the main novelist and short story Goes There?", "Duel", "A Sound of Thunder", "The writer, known by his magical realist stories and his de- Body", "Total Recall", "The Lawnmower Man", fense of the Communist Party in his country. "Hearts in Atlantis", and "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty". The Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, also a Nobel prize winner, has significant short story works. Television specials, such as "12:01 PM" (1993 tele- The Egyptian Nobel Prize-winner Naguib Mafouz is the vision movie), "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet" (October most well-known author from his country, but has only a 11, 1963, on The Twilight Zone), "The Lottery", and few short stories. "Button, Button" (on The Twilight Zone). Japanese world-known short story writers include Kenzaburō Ōe (Nobel prize winner of 1994), Yukio Mishima and Haruki Murakami. 7 See also Anthology 4 eShort Conte cruel Jamie Krakover defined eshorts in The Writers’ Drabble Lens: Essay " For those unfamiliar with eshorts, they Flash fiction (also called microfiction) are short stories ranging from 12-150 pages, Irish short story usually linked to a series. They vary in price from free to $3.99 and are available in elec- Literary journal tronic format only. The stories told in eshorts are often told from a perspective other than Mini saga the main character in a series or tell of a side Novella event that is loosely linked to the overall story. They are a great way for readers to revisit their Sketch story favorite stories and characters in a new light. Stories of this nature normally would require Tall tale a collection before they could be printed but Vignette because of the emergence of ebooks and their pricing scheme, they are available almost as quickly as authors write them.” 8 References “Short story”. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2012-05-27. 5 Recognition Poe, Edgar Allan (1984). Edgar Allan Poe: Essays and Reviews. Library of America. pp. 569–77. Alice Munro, “master of the contemporary short story” according to her citation for the 2013 Nobel Prize in Lit- Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The Penguin Dictionary of Literary erature, said she hopes the award would bring readership Terms and Literary Theory (3rd ed.). London: Penguin. for the short story in general. p. 864. Abrams, M. H. (1999). Glossary of Literary Terms (7th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace. pp. 286–287. ISBN 6 Adaptations 0-155-05452-X. Deirdre Fulton (2008-06-11). “Who reads short shorts?". Short stories have frequently been adapted for: thePhoneix.com. Retrieved 2013-06-06. each of their (less-than-1000-word) stories Radio dramas, as on NBC Presents: Short Story “Complete Nebula Awards Rules Including the Ray Brad- (1951–52). A popular example of this is "The bury and Andre Norton Awards (Revised & Updated)". Hitch-Hiker", read by Orson Welles. sfwa.org. Retrieved 2012-02-17. 6 10 EXTERNAL LINKS Short Story in Jacob E. Safra e.a., The New Encyclopæ- Watson, Noelle, ed. (1994). Reference Guide to dia Britannica, 15th edition, Micropaedia volume 10, Short Fiction. Detroit: St. James Press. Chicago, 1998. Winther, Per, Jakob Lothe, and Hans H. Skei, ed. Internet Book List :: Book Information: Oxford Book of (2004). The Art of Brevity: Excursions in Short Fic- Gothic Tales. tion Theory and Analysis. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. “Poe’s The Philosophy of Composition: a Study Guide”. Cummingsstudyguides.net. Retrieved 2013-04-22. Krakover, Jamie (April 4, 2012). “The Eshort Phe- 9.1 Still often cited nomenon”. The Writers’ Lens. Eikhenbaum, Boris, “How Gogol’s ‘Overcoat’ is Munro (2013). “Telephone”. Nobel Prize. Made” in Elizabeth Trahan (ed.) (1982). Gogol’s “Overcoat” : An Anthology of Critical Essays,. Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis. 9 Bibliography Hanson, Clare (1985). Short Stories and Short Fic- tions, 1880-1980. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Browns, Julie, ed. (1997). Ethnicity and the Ameri- can Short Story. New York: Garland. LoCicero, Donald (1970). Novellentheorie: The Practicality of the Theoretical. (About the German Goyet, Florence (2014). The Classic Short Story, theories of the Short Story) The Hague: Mouton. 1870-1925: Theory of a Genre. Cambridge U.K.: Open Book Publishers. Lohafer, Susan and Jo Ellyn Clarey, ed. (1990). Short Story Theory at a Crossroads. Baton Rouge, Gelfant, Blanche and Lawrence Graver, ed. (2000). LA: Louisiana State University Press. The Columbia Companion to the Twentieth-Century American Short Story. Columbia University Press. Mann, Susan Garland (1989). The Short Story Cy- cle: A Genre Companion and Reference Guide. New Hart, James and Phillip Leininger, ed. (1995). Ox- York: Greenwood Press. ford Companion to American Literature. Oxford O’Connor, Frank (1963). The Lonely Voice: A Study University Press. of the Short Story. Cleveland, OH: World Publishing Ibáñez, José R, José Francisco Fernández and Car- Company. men M. Bretones, ed. (2007). , Contemporary De- O’FAOLÁIN, Seán (1951). The short story. Cork: bates on the Short Story. Bern: Lang. Mercier, 1948; New York, Devin-Adair. Iftekharrudin, Farhat, Joseph Boyden, Joseph Rohrberger, Mary (1966). Hawthorne and the Mod- Longo and Mary Rohrberger, ed. (2003). Postmod- ern Short Story: A Study in Genre. The Hague: Mou- ern Approaches to the Short Story. Westport, CN: ton. Praeger. Kennedy, Gerald J., ed. (2011). Modern American Short Story Sequences: Composite Fictions and Fic- 10 External links tive Communities. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press. The Short History of the Short Story by William Boyd Lohafer, Susan (2003). Reading for Storyness: Pre- The Contemporary Short Story (1957 - 2013) chart closure Theory, Empirical Poetics, and Culture in the The Classic Short Story, 1870-1925. Theory of a Short Story. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univer- Genre Open Book Publishers, Cambridge UK, 2014 sity Press. Magill, Frank, ed. (1997). Short Story Writers. Pasadena, California: Salem Press. Patea, Viorica, ed. (2012). Short Story Theories: A Twenty-First-Century Perspective. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Scofield, Martin, ed. (2006). The Cambridge In- troduction to the American Short Story. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  7 11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 11.1 Text Short story Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story?oldid=694435532 Contributors: The Epopt, Zundark, The Anome, Jeron- imo, Trimalchio, Ttraub, Nate Silva, SimonP, Kevinbasil, Jahsonic, Gabbe, Minesweeper, Ducker, Ahoerstemeier, Александър, Goblin, Nikai, Sethmahoney, John K, Gavri, Nedward, Magnus.de, Wik, Maximus Rex, Davichito, Furrykef, Mowgli~enwiki, Wetman, Mor- domo, Chuunen Baka, Gentgeen, Robbot, Naddy, Lowellian, Postdlf, Rfc1394, David Edgar, Cordell, Alan Liefting, Gtrmp, Lupin, Enkrates, Siroxo, Neilc, Utcursch, Andycjp, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Bringa, Vanished user 1234567890, Heman, Rdsmith4, Tothebar- ricades.tk, Kevin B12, Ukexpat, The stuart, Thorwald, DanielCD, Discospinster, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Zebs, Krstin~enwiki, Prsephone1674, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Longhair, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Filiocht, Viriditas, Maur- reen, Shereth, Sam Korn, Ranveig, Danski14, Alansohn, Chino, Mo0, Nesbitt, ABCD, Truthaboutchabad, Melaen, Velella, Benson85, SidP, RJFJR, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, Computerjoe, Ghirlandajo, Richwales, Hijiri88, Woohookitty, LOL, Unixer, Tabletop, Dmol, Ste- fanomione, Marudubshinki, Graham87, BD2412, FreplySpang, Edison, Search4Lancer, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Vary, Vegaswikian, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, Fish and karate, Saksham, Titoxd, Shimottawa, Wangoed, SouthernNights, Gurch, TeaDrinker, SilverSteelWolf, DVdm, Bgwhite, NSR, Skoosh, Gwernol, YurikBot, Sachinketkar, Wavelength, Sceptre, Pip2andahalf, Zafiroblue05, Pigman, Asgeirr, Stephenb, Ihope127, Pseudomonas, Ugur Basak, NawlinWiki, Irishguy, Moe Epsilon, RL0919, Xompanthy, Wangi, Haemo, Dv82matt, Wknight94, Tetracube, Zzuuzz, Trilemma, PTSE, Open2universe, Bhumiya, Jacklee, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, NYArtsnWords, GraemeL, CWenger, ArielGold, Red Darwin, Iago Dali, Wizofaus, SmackBot, MattieTK, Dweller, Espresso Addict, Mo- eron, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Bomac, Stephensuleeman, Delldot, Srnec, Sebesta, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Mazeface, Quinsareth, Happyface162, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Jottce, SchfiftyThree, JoeBlogsDord, Deli nk, Sadads, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Octahedron80, Darth Panda, AntiVan, Eliezg, Moho, Sephiroth BCR, Onorem, Rrburke, Mbertsch, COMPFUNK2, Jiddisch~enwiki, “alyosha”, Bejnar, Skinnyweed, Wilt, The undertow, Saccerzd, Gryffon, Microchip08, Bagel7, FrozenMan, Steppenvalve, Vghghhi, Ckatz, The Man in Question, Eivind F Øyangen, EarlWestheimer, George The Dragon, Dicklyon, SandyGeorgia, Dr.K., Djlarz, Hu12, MikeWazowski, Emx~enwiki, White Ash, Woodroar, Shoeofdeath, Llydawr, W0lfie, Twas Now, Lenoxus, Beno1000, Tawker- bot2, JForget, Ale jrb, ZICO, Rawling, Jekteir, Nunquam Dormio, Maximilli, ShelfSkewed, Brandon.macuser, ScipioAfricans, Fletcher, Senorelroboto, Abdennour driss, ProfessorPaul, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Schmorgluck, Registered user 92, Theycallmebruce, Gogo Dodo, Acs4b, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Optimist on the run, Jordanzed, Ebrahim, Freak in the bunnysuit, Lo2u, Omnimalevolent, Jimcripps, Inoc- ulatedcities, JamesAM, Epbr123, CynicalMe, Mojo Hand, Mr pand, AuthorRDK, Christopherjfoster, JustAGal, J. 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Original artist: ? 8 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/105859/booksajsvg-aj-ashton-01 Original artist: AJ on openclipart.org File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau 11.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0