Self-Awareness: Learning Processes for Growth PDF

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior...

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Developing Self-Awareness: Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 Learning Processes for Self- and Interpersonal Growth Manuel London,1 Valerie I. Sessa,2 and Loren A. Shelley2 1 College of Business, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York, USA; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey, USA Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2023. Keywords 10:261–88 self-awareness, self-insight, mindfulness, reflection, rumination, feedback First published as a Review in Advance on November 18, 2022 Abstract The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior is online at Self-awareness—how we see ourselves and the effects we have on our orgpsych.annualreviews.org environment—influences our behavior and the type of person we want to https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920- become. This article examines recent research and areas of practice that ad- 044531 dress the meaning of self-awareness and how it develops over time. We build Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). This work is on extant comprehensive reviews of the literature to define self-awareness licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 and its accuracy, measurement, and effects, including the dark side of be- International License, which permits unrestricted ing overly introspective. We offer a framework to integrate theory-based use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. processes. We present the results of a literature search of educational inter- See credit lines of images or other third-party ventions aimed at increasing mindfulness through reflection, feedback, and material in this article for license information. coaching. We conclude with calls for research and implications for practice in areas of measurement, tracking changes, interventions, and self in relation to others in areas of societal impact, self-presentation on digital media, and promoting self-awareness in relation to organization and team membership. 261  INTRODUCTION We cannot change what we are not aware of, and once we are aware, we cannot help but change. —Sheryl Sandberg (2013, p. 151) Self-awareness development is a hot topic in contemporary culture around the world and across many disciplines. We found studies for our review from China, Qatar, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, that examined employee self-awareness. In addition, self-awareness development is included in educational programs in Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 such areas as health care (physician, nurse, and pharmacist training), business (master of business administration, public administration, entrepreneurship, and corporate leadership programs), un- dergraduate student development, teacher training, clinical and counseling psychology, and social work. The goal of this article is to articulate how self-awareness and, more specifically, the de- velopment of self-awareness have been conceptualized and applied in organizational psychology. Drawing on and integrating key concepts from recent comprehensive literature reviews on self- awareness (Carden et al. 2022, Chon & Sitkin 2021, Eurich 2017, Rasheed et al. 2019), as well as recent research in self-awareness development, we define self-awareness, consider how it is measured, and examine individual and situational antecedents and consequences of changes in self-awareness to understand how it is affected by, and affects, interpersonal relationships, work behaviors, and outcomes throughout a person’s career. We acknowledge that self-awareness devel- opment has a potential dark side—being too introspective at the expense of recognizing external pressures, demands, and expectations. Given the breadth of concepts and relationships identi- fied in our review, we synthesize the literature in an integrative model of affective, cognitive, and motivational processes facilitated by situational support to develop resilience, self-insight, and self-identity. We review interventions aimed at increasing self-awareness and positive outcomes. The integrative model and review of interventions lead to our call for future research and practice on self-awareness development. Defining Self-Awareness At its heart, self-awareness is the ability to see ourselves clearly (Eurich 2017), that is, to become the object of our own attention. Recent reviews (Carden et al. 2022, Chon & Sitkin 2021, Eurich 2017, Rasheed et al. 2019) agree that the definition of self-awareness across the literature has been conceptualized in several ways. Table 1 describes the content and process of self-awareness. The content of self-awareness has internal and external components. Internal self-awareness includes our affect, beliefs, cognitions, interests, goals, personality, values, and meaningful life patterns. External self-awareness includes our perceptions of our physical appearance and our behavior. Ex- ternal self-awareness also includes a social aspect of self-awareness, specifically, our self-evaluations in relation to what others tell us (feedback), our perceptions of how people relate to us and the effects our behavior has on others, and the extent to which we act in ways that are sensitive to oth- ers. Internal and external components of self-awareness are evident in concepts that have slight distinctions but may be used as synonymous with self-awareness: self-insight and self-knowledge (what we know about ourselves and our environments) and self-image and self-identity (how we see ourselves and how we think others see us in our various roles) (see Table 1 for definitions). The process of self-awareness includes thinking about ourselves such that we become aware of our characteristics, sustain this awareness, and use it as we behave and interact with others. Thought processes include introspection, self-examination, and self-absorption (Carden et al. 2022, Chon & Sitkin 2021). Authors have referred to these processes as reflection, rumination, metacognition, and mindfulness. Reflective self-awareness is continuous attention to the self, with 262 London Sessa Shelley  Table 1 Definitions of self-awareness and related concepts Self-awareness content Internal self-awareness How people perceive themselves—their own values, interests, and goals—and their impact on others (Eurich 2017, 2018) Internal mental states, in particular, feelings/emotions and cognitions/thoughts (Carden et al. 2022) When attention is directed inward, the object of his own consciousness (Chon & Sitkin 2021, Duval & Wicklund 1972) Awareness of one’s attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and motives; recalling past internal states and thinking about who we will be in the future (Wilson 2009); accuracy of one’s internal states Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 (Klimoski & Hu 2021) External self-awareness Thoughts about how others perceive us (Eurich 2017, 2018) “Process of becoming aware of one’s physical and physiological traits, emotional states and feelings, and meaningful life patterns, actions, beliefs and preconceived ideas” Rasheed et al. (2019, p. 765) “The similarity or difference in the way a person sees himself or herself, compared to how they are perceived by others” (Murphy et al. 2008, p. 258) Internal and external “A range of components, which can be developed through focus, evaluation and feedback, and integration provides an individual with an awareness of their internal state...that drives their behaviors...and an awareness of how this impacts and influences others” (Carden et al. 2022, p. 164) The ability to see ourselves clearly—to understand who we are, how others see us, and how we fit into the world around us (Eurich 2017, 2018) Self-insight The strengths and weaknesses we see in ourselves and our perception of resources, opportunities, potential rewards, and barriers (London 1983, 1995) Self-image The network of psychological dimensions that encompass how we view ourselves and our roles; dimensions include self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-liking, self-confidence, internal control, and openness to learning (Tafarodi & Swann 2001) Self-identity Closely related to self-image, self-identity includes the idiosyncratic attributes that one sees in oneself and the roles one has and wants to achieve (London 1983, Maurer & London 2018, Swann 1987) Self-awareness processes Reflective self-awareness Continuous attention to the self, with a focus on conscious, reflective, and balanced learning motivated by curiosity in the self (Itzchakov et al. 2018, Sutton 2016, Trapnell & Campbell 1999) Ruminative self-awareness Attention to self that is motivated by perceived potential or current threat, loss, or injustice (Itzchakov et al. 2018, Trapnell & Campbell 1999) Metacognition Knowledge of one’s own thought processes and awareness of one’s abilities ( Jia et al. 2019, Zimmerman & Schunk 2001) Mindfulness “Receptive attention to and awareness of present moment events and experiences” (Brown et al. 2007, p. 212); trait mindfulness—the propensity to be aware of present moment experiences (Hülsheger et al. 2021, Leyland et al. 2019) a focus on conscious and balanced learning motivated by curiosity or interest in the self—what we are and what we have the potential to become (Itzchakov et al. 2018, Sutton 2016, Trapnell & Campbell 1999). Ruminative self-awareness is attention to self that is motivated by perceived threat, loss, or injustice (Itzchakov et al. 2018, Trapnell & Campbell 1999). The tendency to reflect about ourselves; ruminate about our weaknesses; and generally be mindful of our capa- bilities, needs, interests, and desires can be a disposition—an individual difference such that some people are internally driven or have developed the ability or habit to engage in processes that sustain and increase their self-awareness (Sutton 2016). Metacognition is knowledge of one’s own thought processes and abilities ( Jia et al. 2019). Mindfulness is awareness of experiences at the www.annualreviews.org Self-Awareness Development 263  present moment (Brown et al. 2007). Table 1 presents examples of how content and processes of self-awareness have been conceptualized in the literature. Self-Awareness Accuracy We are poor judges of our own capabilities, with an average correlation of 0.29 between self- evaluations and objective assessments (Dierdorff & Rubin 2015). This has been explained by the difference between one’s implicit and explicit self-view. One’s implicit self-view is that portion of one’s self-concept that is embedded in one’s unconscious. One’s explicit self-view is that portion of Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 one’s self-concept of which one is conscious. The difference between the two may cause over- or underestimation of one’s abilities (Alicke et al. 2020). Measures of accuracy may be derived from how self-perceptions differ from test scores, behavioral assessments, and observations from others (e.g., supervisors and peers) or from behavioral assessments (e.g., evaluations from assessment centers; Collins & Hartog 2021). Over- or underestimating one’s abilities can lead to negative outcomes or to missing positive outcomes. Either could lead to low emotional well-being (e.g., depression or feelings of being ridiculed from failure or self-blame for what could have been if our fear of failure had not prevented us from trying; Wilson 2009). As such, self-knowledge is likely to affect motivation and style of behavior. For instance, new leaders’ behaviors are reinforced by feedback and outcomes, which in turn generate dominant styles of leadership based on situational conditions (London & Sherman 2021). Individuals give up or integrate past identities to form a new identity as a leader and the type of leader they are or are becoming. This self-identity affects their future motivation to lead and leadership style (Maurer & London 2018) (see the sidebar titled Spirals of Leader Self-Identity). Measures of Self-Awareness Self-awareness measures are often self-reports. Some measures focus on the process of self- awareness—how people describe gaining self-awareness through reflection and seeking and discussing performance feedback. These can determine an individual’s readiness to engage in in- terventions that encourage self-reflection and mindfulness. For instance, a general self-awareness scale asks respondents to rate how well their personal experience shapes their goals and whether they know how their personality influences the way they behave (Lu & Wan 2018). Another mea- sure, the Self-Reflection and Insight Scale (Grant et al. 2002), asks respondents for ratings on 20 items about their tendency to reflect on the self and the extent to which they believe they have insight into their own behavior. Trapnell & Campbell’s (1999) Reflection Rumination Questionnaire is similar. Other measures focus on the content of self-awareness. These can be useful for predicting whether people are likely to seek or accept tasks that they can perform well and whether they SPIRALS OF LEADER SELF-IDENTITY Day et al. (2009) distinguished between positive and negative spirals of leader self-identity. Positive spirals occur as favorable events and outcomes unfold. For instance, team members in initially leaderless groups come to see themselves as team leaders when they realize that fellow members are following their suggestions and guidance ( Jiang et al. 2021). As leaders stretch their capabilities, generate positive outcomes, and see themselves as role models for others, and give less importance to their old roles and relationships, they increase their identity as leaders (Kragt & Day 2020, Maurer & London 2018). However, negative spirals can occur when leadership actions and decisions do not produce positive outcomes. 264 London Sessa Shelley  recognize what they need to learn to improve their performance. The Mindful Attention Aware- ness Scale (Brown & Ryan 2003) measures trait self-awareness on 15 items using 6-point scales. Sutton (2016) compared these measures to a measure called the Self-Awareness Outcomes Ques- tionnaire, which contains 38 items measured on 5-point scales. The analysis yielded four factors: reflective self-development (e.g., “I have insight into myself”), acceptance (e.g., “I am realistic about myself”), proactiveness at work (e.g., “I see my work life as something I have power to af- fect”), and emotional costs (e.g., “I feel vulnerable”). Other means of evaluating self-awareness ask participants to keep observational journals or collect trained observers’ opinions of assessees’ self- Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 objectivity—the accuracy of their self-perceived characteristics—during interviews, assessment centers (cf. Thornton 1992), and feedback coaching sessions and compare self-ratings to others’ judgments about their performance (Atkins & Wood 2002). Effects of Self-Awareness Self-awareness is important to our behavior, satisfaction, and performance (Carden et al. 2022). It contributes to better decision making and team performance (Dierdorff & Rubin 2015), increased leadership success (Showry & Manasa 2014), and more opportunities for career advancement (Axelrod 2012). Self-awareness brings many psychological benefits, including increased self- regulation, more attention to others’ needs (pro-sociality), and less stress and anxiety (Donald et al. 2019, Hali et al. 2021, Hülsheger et al. 2021, Rasheed et al. 2019). Self-awareness affects behaviors and outcomes through internal states (e.g., self-confidence, self-identity) and accuracy of how we believe others view us and how we perceive others. Individuals who are low in self-awareness are likely to exhibit self-protection mechanisms such as denial, withdrawal, self-aggrandizement, and fear of failure (Wohlers & London 1989). As people become more self-aware, they become more resilient and better at adaptive performance—the ability to analyze uncertain, stressful situations; identify possible solutions; improvise; and maintain composure (Park & Park 2019). Preparing for difficult situations, for instance, emergency response training, increases individuals’ feelings of self-efficacy and readiness to adapt when the need arises (Chen et al. 2005, Kraiger et al. 1993). Leaders who are higher in self-awareness generally have higher levels of performance (Cashman 2014). Leaders who are more self-aware are better able to incorporate others’ assessments about them into the way they see themselves, and as a result, they are better able to adjust their behavior and improve their performance (Murphy et al. 2008). Personal self-awareness is an attribute of authentic leadership. It is reflected in the way authentic leaders think about their values, identity, emotions, goals, knowledge, and capabilities (Chen et al. 2005, Steffens et al. 2021). Steffens et al. (2021) distinguished between personal and collective self-awareness (how leaders are perceived to have a deep understanding of the teams or organizations they lead). The dark side of self-awareness. Processes that contribute to self-awareness can have dysfunc- tional consequences. Just because you are aware of something about yourself does not mean you can benefit from that awareness. White-knuckle alcoholics know they are alcoholics but do not take positive actions to address their issues. Instead, they try to use their mind and willpower to fix it. Self-awareness can lead to excessive self-inspection, making it difficult to function or per- form (Ariel et al. 2018). Self-serving biases (Duval & Silvia 2002) and self-deception (Showry & Manasa 2014) cause us to invent answers that are not necessarily true. Indeed, people need to learn to manage discrepancies between self and feedback from others, particularly when the feedback is unfavorable and unexpected (Whetten & Cameron 2016). Feedback about one’s behavior that is inconsistent with one’s self-view can be disconcerting and lead to withdrawal, denial, depres- sion, or other such negative feelings that hamper our ability to function (Kluger & DeNisi 1996, London 2015). www.annualreviews.org Self-Awareness Development 265  The ways others act toward us, especially when we speak about ourselves, can increase ru- mination and foster a dark side of self-awareness. As people are speaking, they tend to become more self-aware when they believe they are being heard. They become more self-reflective when they feel they are being listened to. That is, when a listener focuses on the speaker’s message, the speaker’s cognitive and emotional frame of reference increases (Kluger & Itzchakov 2022). Listen- ers who convey a judgmental attitude show little understanding. They may inaccurately paraphrase what they think the speaker meant, ask irrelevant and closed-ended questions, or exhibit nonver- bal behaviors that signal disinterest and inattention. This tends to increase the speaker’s anxiety Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 and decrease the speaker’s psychological safety, although this effect may be lower for people who are less interpersonally sensitive (Itzchakov et al. 2018, Kluger & Itzchakov 2022). Alternatively, listeners can act in ways that make us feel we are being understood and psychologically safe to express our thoughts and engage in introspection. Another dark side of self-awareness can emerge from being too self-centered and intro- spective. Chon & Sitkin (2021) outlined characteristics associated with effects of high levels of self-awareness, such as aggression, narcissism, emotional regulation, humility, and perspective tak- ing. A balanced approach to self-awareness recognizes the dark side of self-awareness, including anxiety and depression, that may stem from awareness of one’s own flaws and emotional insensi- tivity from self-centered thinking and habituated self-reflection (Chon & Sitkin 2021, Walsh & Arnold 2020). Individuals who tend to be self-centered, particularly if they are more egocentric and narcissistic, are not likely to care about how others see them (Clawson 2010). This can result in blind spots, shortcomings, derailments, and failures. Dysfunctional self-awareness can occur when individuals misread how others see them, avoid or ignore information about themselves, maintain a self-perception that does not relate to their behavior or how others see them, act defen- sively in response to unfavorable feedback, and/or routinely blame others for negative outcomes and attribute any positive outcomes to themselves. Feedback aimed at helping individuals con- trol their implicit biases by making them aware of their biases may have the opposite effect by stimulating feelings of threat and invoking self-protective defense mechanisms (see the sidebar titled Implicit Bias). Interventions that decrease their feelings of self-blame and offer behaviors to increase perceived control over biases can motivate people to recognize their biases and commit to overcome them (Vitriol & Moskowitz 2021). Summary Self-awareness includes both content and process. The content of self-awareness is an awareness of our internal states, our external appearance and behavior, and our social interactions and envi- ronments. Over- or underestimating our abilities as compared to objective data on how others see us can have dysfunctional outcomes in establishing goals and recognizing our true level of perfor- mance. The process of self-awareness includes engaging in activities in which we turn attention to ourselves. Generally, self-awareness has positive effects on our health and well-being, although there is a potential dark side to being too introspective or too ruminative to the exclusion of IMPLICIT BIAS Alerting people to the unintentional effects of their behavior toward others can foster their self-knowledge and change how they act. If we understand implicit bias, we can guard against such biases in the future (Onyeador et al. 2021). Training can help individuals recognize their implicit bias and develop more accurate frames of reference against which they evaluate others and their own behavior (Uggerslev & Sulsky 2008, Wilson 2009). 266 London Sessa Shelley  accurately understanding the effects we have on the world around us. Self-awareness about neg- ative qualities (e.g., one’s biases) can be threatening, causing us to seek ways to reduce feelings of blame and increase control. THEORY-BASED STRATEGIES FOR SELF-AWARENESS DEVELOPMENT In their review, Rasheed et al. (2019) suggested three general types of strategies for developing self- awareness: (a) theory-based strategies that use various frameworks for developing and improving Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 self-awareness; (b) educational and teaching interventions, which we identified from a search of the literature on self-awareness development; and (c) personal interventions—those that people initiate on their own. Here we consider theory-based strategies for self-awareness development. Self-awareness is not “one truth” (Eurich 2018) but is rather a balance of processes and content of how we perceive ourselves in different roles and situations over time. Although many people believe they are self-aware, that they are able to see themselves clearly, some research suggests that only 10% to 15% of people are self-aware (see Eurich 2017). Self-awareness development as a lifelong process is the deliberate inception, and then broadening and deepening, of both the content of self-awareness and the processes or activities used in our pursuit of self-awareness. Over a lifetime, people learn about what self-awareness is and the importance of it. They learn about self-awareness processes and then to engage in them, become better at them, and use them in a more complex and deep manner. They learn more about themselves and how their internal and external self-awareness are interconnected. Theories of self in adult development, learn- ing, and motivation are useful for understanding self-awareness development. We consider each below. Key Adult Development Theories There is no shortage of theories of adult self-development. We list and briefly describe several in Table 2. These processes unfold over time. Adult constructive development theories such as those proposed by Kegan (1994) and Laske (1999) argue that self-awareness evolves and develops over a lifetime from simpler to more complex. According to Kegan (1994), humans are engaged over their lifetimes in a continuous process of meaning making. Kegan theorizes that this process leads individuals from being completely embedded in their own subjectivity to potentially being able to take themselves as objects. Depending on where adults are in this journey, this meaning-making governs their relationship to themselves, their roles, work, and their world in general. Thus, the self is continuously evolving (Laske 1999). Experiential learning theory. Kolb & Fry’s (1975) experiential learning model highlights the value of taking time for self-reflection to realize what we know and do not know about ourselves and how we relate to other people. Cycles of learning occur as one engages in reflection, drawing inferences about desired behavior change, experimenting with new behaviors, taking action to change behavior on the job, engaging in further reflection about the action and its outcomes, and continuing and deepening in a spiral of learning cycles (Passarelli & Kolb 2021). Adaptive performance models hold that we learn by handling uncertain situations. This helps us recognize our skills and abilities and the degree to which we meet task requirements. This increases our sense of self-efficacy, which in turn helps us collaborate with team members, set goals, and monitor progress (Chen et al. 2005, Kraiger et al. 1993). Generally, developing greater and more valid self- knowledge helps people improve their interpersonal relationships, which in turn contributes to better job performance (Klimoski & Hu 2021). www.annualreviews.org Self-Awareness Development 267  Table 2 Theoretical drivers of self-awareness processes Self-assessment People want and seek accurate information about themselves (Sedikides 1993). Self-monitoring People follow and evaluate themselves in relation to a standard that they perceive (Silvia & Duval 2001). Self-regulation People control their behavior in relation to perceived standards of favorable behavior and are motivated to meet these standards (Baumeister 1998). Self-enhancement People seek information that maintains their positive view of themselves (Alicke & Sedikides 2009, Swann et al. 1987). Social identity We see ourselves differently in different situations and groups (Tajfel & Turner 1986). Self-categorization Through the process of self-categorization into different group members, individuals come to see Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 characteristics of the group in themselves (Turner & Reynolds 2010). Intentional change People may have different selves that are relevant to them in different contexts, and in any given situation, particularly a new situation; they consider which self applies and what skills and competencies are needed (Taylor 2006). Social cognition One’s self-efficacy enables people to control their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and control their personal, cultural, and social goals and achievements (Bandura 1986). Self-determination Intrinsic motivation is connected to mindfulness; through mindfulness, “people’s motives become more informed by their intrinsic interests, abiding values, and deep priorities” (Ryan et al. 2021, p. 301); benefits include well-being and pro-sociality (Ryan & Deci 2017). Intentional change People discover their real selves though reflection, learning, practice, and experimentation as they develop trusting relationships (Boyatzis 2006, Taylor 2006). Implicit personality An individual holds beliefs about the malleability of personal attributes, such as ability and personality, that influence behavior (Dweck 1999). Motivation theories. Self-awareness fits within a nomological network of concepts and theo- retical models of relationships associated with motivation. Early social psychological theory and research suggest that becoming self-aware initiates the development of a standard or a mental representation of a “correct person” (Duval & Wicklund 1972), “ideal self” (Boyatzis 2006), or future possible self (Markus & Nurius 1986). Discrepancies between the self and the standard motivate individuals to close the gap. They could do this by attributing the gap to themselves and actively changing and developing to be more congruent with their standard, or they could change the standard. A third option is that people could avoid self-focusing stimuli and circumstances (Silvia & Duval 2001, p. 231). Thus, the content of our self-awareness helps us perceive what we can or want to accomplish. This acts as a motivational spark to close the gap. Intentional change theory (Boyatzis 2006) argues that individuals pick how they want to change and that changing in desired ways takes intentional effort. Career motivation theory links one’s sense of resilience, self-awareness, and self-identity (London 1983). Self-awareness is a motivational spark. When we have insight into our abilities, interests, and goals and about our environment (others’ expectations of us and opportunities), we perceive what we can accomplish. Our self-identity is the direction for our motivational energy, that is, what we want to achieve (say, a position of leadership). Resilience is the set of characteristics (e.g., self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal control) that give us confidence to persist, especially in the face of barriers. Thus, developing self-awareness content leads to stronger self-identity. An integrative framework of self-awareness development. In adulthood, self-awareness con- tent develops as we become aware of our internal states and capabilities. People develop self-awareness content as they increase their understanding of how they compare to their per- ception of societal or organizational standards, others’ expectations, and their own goals and values. Self-awareness processes, such as mindfulness, contribute to a clearer focus of our internal states, biases, and external stimuli. Given the disparate content and processes of self-awareness, we 268 London Sessa Shelley  INTERVENTIONS TO DEVELOP POSITIVE SELF-AWARENESS PROCESSES Self-reflection Feedback Coaching Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 Reinforcements Feedback and Performance goals PROCESSES and self- information about self Learning from enhancement and environment experience AFFECT COGNITION MOTIVATION Resilience Learning goals Career identity Self-esteem Self-assessment Social identity Confidence Feedback seeking Emotional sensitivity Self-image Self- and Self-identity and Behavior and CONTENT (e.g., proactive interpersonal impression performance and resilient) insight management results intentions Figure 1 An integrative model of positive and continuous self-awareness development through self-reflection, feedback, and coaching. offer a framework that integrates components of self-awareness; how self-awareness develops over time; and how self-awareness affects, and is affected by, dispositional characteristics and situational conditions across a person’s career and in different organizational contexts. We draw on Chon & Sitkin’s (2021) distinctions between content and processes of self-awareness and between affective, cognitive, and motivational constructs associated with internal and external self-awareness. There is also a social component to external self-awareness, how we see ourselves interacting with others, and social self-awareness. Figure 1 summarizes these key self-awareness development processes for how self-awareness changes (strengthens, diminishes, and changes in content) over time. The model includes antecedents of self-awareness and how self-awareness shapes our behavior. Our actions lead to learning and outcomes that reinforce our resilience—our ability to be proactive, persist, and overcome barriers toward goal accomplishment. This is a foundation for developing self- and interpersonal insight. This is knowledge about ourselves and others—the spark that mo- tivates us to formulate goals and actions that shape our self-identity and the type of person we want to become. The processes in the model encompass situational events (e.g., supervisor relationships) and employees’ feelings, thoughts, and motivation. This incorporates resilience, insight, and identity underlying career motivation. Reinforcements (e.g., praise) strengthen employees’ self-esteem and confidence, over time increasing their resilience in the face of challenges and increasing their ten- dency to be proactive in seeking feedback and opportunities for development. As such, resilience www.annualreviews.org Self-Awareness Development 269  is the foundation for greater self-insight and understanding of others. Insight about capabilities and opportunities contributes to self-identity. Overall, as ongoing, dynamic processes, the integrative model proposes seeing oneself as re- silient, being insightful about oneself and others, and having a clear self-identity. This influences performance-related behaviors, which in turn continue to support self-focused affect, cognition, and motivation. These processes are not always a virtuous cycle. Lack of reinforcement, feedback, and learning experiences can weaken resilience, insight, and identity and result in inaccurate self- views and dysfunctional behaviors and attitudes. Examples would be misreading others’ cues or Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 experiencing disappointment when goals are not met or positive results do not materialize. This in line with Kluger & DeNisi’s (1996) finding that feedback can be dysfunctional if it threatens one’s self-image. Our integrative model highlights how people garner information about themselves and their environments, particularly how they perceive others and how others perceive and react to them. Self-reflection must be accompanied by thinking about the world outside ourselves. Being too self-centered, perhaps from dwelling on negative outcomes, can result in misreading job require- ments, others’ expectations, and our capabilities, causing us to misjudge our performance and miss opportunities. Receiving information about ourselves (e.g., tests of our capabilities), if we pay at- tention to it and process it mindfully, stimulates self-awareness and builds self-knowledge, forming self and interpersonal insight. This is the spark that suggests to us what we can accomplish in our lives and careers and the type of person we want to become (the behaviors we want to exhibit and the impressions of ourselves that we want to create and reinforce in others). Our social identity and emotional sensitivity contribute to how we see ourselves in different roles within and outside the organization. Our self-image, especially possessing characteristics that make us proactive and resilient, often develops early in life but likely changes as we learn from our successes and failures. This occurs throughout our careers and lives. Role and life changes may result in merging new identities with the old or changing or reshaping our identity. Motivation to learn and support for self-awareness development. Table 3 suggests how dif- ferent combinations of motivation to learn more about oneself and support for self-awareness development produce different results over time. People who are motivated to learn about them- selves and receive support, for instance, in the form of constructive feedback and coaching given in a way that promotes psychological safety, are likely to grow in self- and interpersonal awareness. After a positive experience in self-learning, they are likely to continue to seek this information, Table 3 Self-awareness development Motivation to learn more about oneself Support for self-awareness High Low High Growth Stagnation  Growth of self- and interpersonal  Generally oblivious to self and others unless awareness made aware  Benefits from reinforcement of ability  Self-awareness and empathy are fleeting  Proactive—seeks input and takes initiative without ongoing support for continuous improvement and  Possible unwanted potential actions pro-sociality (ego-driven achievement motivation and externally controlled motivations) Low Self-focus Decline  Increasingly self-centered  Low self-image; low empathy for others  Focus on self-enhancement  May expect, and even seek, unfavorable  Narcissistic feedback to verify negative self-image 270 London Sessa Shelley  take the initiative for their own continuous improvement, and provide similar support for others’ self-development. However, too much self-reflection at the exclusion of openness to environmen- tal conditions is likely to produce self-centered behavior. Without the support of feedback and coaching, highly introspective individuals are likely to ignore others’ needs and focus on their own aggrandizement. In the extreme, this becomes narcissistic. People who spend little time on self-reflection may stagnate, maintaining a level of self-knowledge that no longer fits how others see them and how they perform. Their self-awareness and empathy for others may be fleeting. However, they may be jogged into recognizing how they affect others and can address others’ Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org. Guest (guest) IP: 182.73.220.98 On: Mon, 04 Nov 2024 08:42:15 needs when information in the environment becomes salient. This may happen when there is a crisis that cannot be ignored or there are vocal complaints by significant others (subordinates, one’s supervisor) about one’s behaviors or decisions. Yet another possibility is when individuals spend little time understanding themselves and are in an environment that is unsupportive and possibly debilitating, for instance, when being harassed or bullied. This can create a situation in which one seeks feedback that verifies their low self-image. These are dynamic processes that emerge over time. The results can be changed in positive directions by interventions that promote constructive combinations of mindfulness and support. This can occur through self-development as individuals take charge of their own self- and inter- personal growth, including seeking information and advice that help them understand themselves and the conditions (others’ needs and capabilities and organizational expectations, goals, and challenges). Their organizations, through supervisor attention, coaching, and training, can foster positive growth. However, organizational conditions can also hamper this growth or cause de- cline. Individuals who are not open to self-awareness, perhaps because they have not had positive experiences that reinforced openness to learning in the past (e.g., a highly critical supervisor, toxic organizational culture, lack of developmental opportunities) may face continued self-deprecation and low empathy for others. Organizational environments that do not foster self- and interper- sonal awareness are likely to create a stale climate marked by maintaining the status quo and missing the benefits of individuals who are enthusiastic about what they can accomplish with others. EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS Most of the research on self-awareness development during the last five years has been based on educational interventions and personal practices. We conducted literature searches using the terms “self-awareness” plus “develop,” “learn,” “change,” and “improve” in the titles of articles in APA Psychological Abstracts, APA PsychInfo, EBSCO Host, and ProQuest from 2016 to 2021, limit- ing the searches to research studies that measured self-awareness and changes in self-awareness of college students and working adults. This resulted in a total of 42 articles. These are sum- marized in Supplemental Table 1 and accompanying supplemental references. Supplemental Table 1 includes the citation, the research design (e.g., pre- and post-test, post-test), the sample size, how self-awareness was conceptualized and measured, the findings, and our comments about the research. Our literature review covered just the last five years to determine the level of current focus of research on self-awareness. We found that the latest research has concentrated on educational interventions. The results showed a wide range of interventions to increase self-awareness con- tent and processes, including reflective practices,