Section 8 Assessment in Education Contexts Part Two Achievement OL PDF

**A.** **Early Childhood assessments** For those of you who may be considering working with very young children, this section begins with a considerations of assessment for this age group. These tests young aim to identify developmental anomalies or delays. While these may have implications for sch...

**A.** **Early Childhood assessments** For those of you who may be considering working with very young children, this section begins with a considerations of assessment for this age group. These tests young aim to identify developmental anomalies or delays. While these may have implications for school performance later, they are not particularly good predictors of it or of intelligence in general, except when a child is identified as being at an impaired level, and several have poor psychometric properties. Two of the more commonly used instruments for the very young are the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (go to for details) and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ([www.pearsonclinical.com](http://www.pearsonclinical.com) then Products → Early Childhood/Developmental → Bayley for details). *The Brazelton Institute description from the website* *➞ Newborn Behavior Observation System (NBO)* *Video: Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (3:33 min.) with Brazelton * *Bayley-4 Screening Test: [www.pearsonclinical.ca](http://www.pearsonclinical.ca)* *➞ Products* *➞ A-Z* *➞ Bayley-4 Screening Test* *➞ Product Details* *➞ Bayley-4 Screening Test Flyer* *Video: Part 1 Bayley Infant and Toddler 111 Screen (12 min.)* *https:// www.youtube.com /watch?v=\_njdDWG8AuY* The tests in this category typically have low test-retest reliability and predictive validity. Why might that be? (development is rapid and uneven with very young children) **B. Pre-school assessments** Think about children about to begin formal schooling. What would they need to have achieved in order to benefit well from their school experience? We may refer to this as their cognitive "readiness " for school. An example of a U.S. standardized test is the Metropolitan Readiness test. You can see from what it covers those achievements which are regarded as important for a child's school "readiness". Text, letter Description automatically generated A Canadian-developed test is the Test of Early Language and Literacy (TELL) for children aged 3 -- 8 and the Canadian Test of Basic Skills-Revised (CTBS-R) which is noted below. *Go to [www.nelson.com/assessment/classroom\_tell.html](http://www.nelson.com/assessment/classroom_tell.html)* We might easily imagine problems not necessarily purely cognitive which could influence school readiness. How would these be assessed? The tools employed include checklists and rating scales which look for school-relevant emotional and behavioural problems. We can anticipate that some of these problems wouldn't be clearly seen until the child has had some early school experience and teachers, especially, note behaviours. We've already met The Connors Behavior Rating Scales -- Revised (CBRS). Such instruments rely heavily on parent and teacher report as key data sources. *Here is the extensive list of CBRS scales:*  **C. Achievement tests for the school-aged (important for those of you who plan to become teachers)** Achievement tests are designed to measure learning accomplishment for these purposes: placement, admission to a program, advanced placement, promotion, graduation, and identification of learning disability. They identify educational gains, alert education professionals to any lags, provide information about optimal styles of instruction for a given child. There is currently pressure on school systems to guarantee minimal competency levels in the basic academic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic: "accountability". 1\. General achievement instruments a\. Group-administered tests: Commercially available group tests: the Canadian Test of Basic Skills-Revised. This test may be used for children in Kindergarten through grade 12. Go to: Provincial examinations: go to [www.bced.gov.bc.ca/assessment/fsa](http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/assessment/fsa) You see here information about assessment of foundational skills, provincial graduation requirements for numeracy and literacy. [Think about it]: How would students be prepared for such group tests in such a way as to not reduce their validity as measures of actual range of knowledge? These instruments test across a range of academic areas. For example, the Wide Range Achievement Test - 5 (WRAT-5) (see text pp. 289 and 326) provides information concerning reading (as in pronunciation), spelling, and arithmetic. As I showed you previously, it provides a grade-level equivalent to the scores on these subtests, but more usefully, a standard score and percentile rank. The Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (text p. 324-326) are commonly used by psychologists. See the list of subtests on the bottom half of p. 325 of the text. We'll meet this test again below, in conjunction with the WJIV Tests of Cognitive Ability. 2\. Achievement in [specific subject] areas Such achievement tests accomplish what all teachers require in terms of an estimate of students' mastery of particular course information or skills. English language proficiency tests serve to guide instruction and determine appropriate school grade placement. **D. Achievement tests of [specific subjects], for use with [adults]** English proficiency tests may also be used for adults to make post-secondary placement/admission decisions, and to determine whether a "minimum competency" level has been achieved for purposes of permanent residency in Canada. If you plan to teach international or new Canadian adult students you should be well-acquainted with CELPIP: [CELPIP Personal stories:] CELPIP Home Page ➞ Take CELPIP ➞ CELPIP Stories [CELPIP access to sample practice tests:] CELPIP Home Page ([www.celpip.ca](http://www.celpip.ca)) ➞ Prepare for CELPIP ➞ Free Resources Of special interest to many of you, here is the [Examination for Professional Practice] [in] [Psychology] (the EPPP). Check out the EPPP at Under *Exam Information select EPPP Candidate Handbook. Scroll down to page 5 which lists the current composition of the test.* **E. Other assessment tools in educational settings** 1\. Performance portfolio and authentic assessment One's assessment goal may be to determine to what degree a person can access, assemble and apply information and processes or strategies in providing an integrated, comprehensive product. This could be a work sample, a portfolio, a thesis, or major integrated paper. The key is that this product shows evidence that someone has learned information, skills, and procedures, and can apply them in an integrated, coherent way to some complex and challenging task. The successful completion of this product should lead to a more valid inference about how well the person would handle a real-life complex challenge. Think of your career goal. What would give an evaluator a valid picture of what you could do with a relevant real-life challenge? 2\. Peer appraisal There are times when one might want to know something about a person's skills or ability from the perspective of others who must work with that person. Here, appraisals can inform about group dynamics, leadership, and collaboration skill. 3\. Measurement of study habits, interests, and attitudes We have already discussed the important role of "non-intellective" factors in accounting for academic and career success. Question: What is included in non-intellective factors? **Applications of Cognitive Ability and Achievement Testing** **A. Dynamic assessment** Rather than the hands-off static tests I've been describing, dynamic assessment evaluates the effect of coaching or teaching. It attempts to answer the question "what is possible by way of ability with appropriate intervention"? **B. Diagnostic tests (versus evaluative tests)** Diagnostic tests are available for basic academic activities such as reading and math. The purpose is usually to diagnose difficulty and plan suitable remediation. For example, the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-R (WRMT-R) provides much more specific information about what aspect of reading is the problem. Is it letter or word identification? Is it word attack (pronunciation)? Is it word or passage comprehension? **C. Psycho-educational test batteries** These batteries facilitate diagnostic formulations concerning learning problems and the planning of remedial educational interventions. They also allow for abilities to be contrasted with academic achievement. 1\. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC-II) This instrument is based on the PASS model, itself derived from the Information Processing model of Russian neuropsychologist A.R. Luria and may be used with people aged three to eighteen. A foundational concept is Luria's distinction between sequential versus simultaneous information processing. In sequential processing, problem-solving is accomplished by mentally arranging input in a linear order. Simultaneous processing involves "synthetic", Gestalt strategies. The KABC-II has an achievement test which is also normed ("co-normed") on the same standardization sample, so one can more easily make comparisons of ability versus achievement scores. A cautionary note: The simultaneous/sequential construct from Luria may not have adequate research evidence. 2\. Woodcock-Johnson IV (text pp. 324-325) This battery includes two tests, also, one being a test of cognitive ability and another a test of achievement. It reflects what we'll see later as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities. It allows cognitive ability (intelligence) versus achievement comparisons of ability : achievement, made easier by the fact that abilities and achievement batteries are normed together. *See Figure 11.3 on p. 325 of text again.* **D. Key Education/Clinical Purposes of Psycho-Educational test batteries** **1. Learning disability** a\. Much of psycho-educational testing in school contexts involves identifying and delineating learning disabilities. While learning disability can, in a [broad sense], refer to learning difficulties associated with any type of factor: mental retardation, brain injury, sensory impairment, emotional disturbance, inadequate education, in the [narrow sense], however, it refers to a failure to learn scholastic skills by a child who has adequate sensory and motor function, intelligence, maturational level, educational and cultural background. The working assumption at this stage is that a Specific Learning Disorder is a "[disorder in a basic psychological process underlying the understanding or use of language, either spoken or written" (USDA as cited in Gregory, 2011)]. This narrower definition is what we see described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. In the DSM, we see three Learning Disorders, of [reading, written expression, and mathematics]. *See Table 10.8 p. 305 in text for definitions of three specific learning disabilities.* The role of assessment is to determine if the criterion is satisfied that the difficulty learning and using these academic skills is "substantially and quantifiably below those expected for the individual's age" which interfere "with academic or occupational performance, or with activities of daily living **as confirmed by individually administered standardized achievement measures and comprehensive clinical assessment."** *Perhaps the most common approach to measuring the key features is the "[aptitude-achievement] discrepancy" analysis. This entails measuring both cognitive ability and demonstrated achievement in academic skill and determining if there is a substantial difference between them. There remains concern among some that this approach is affected by [non-cognitive (non-intellective) factors] influencing the test-taker's test performance (what do you think these might be?) and such test results should be considered in the context of other information about the test-taker.* *Now you can see the value of having tests of both cognitive ability/intelligence and of achievement such as the Woodcock-Johnson IV, which are co-normed.* *See Case \#3 (text p. 304): a child being assessed for AD/HD who is revealed in testing to have also a comorbid Learning Disability. We'll meet him again in a moment.* **Abbreviated Case Study** I'll describe briefly an assessment conducted by one of my clinical psychology interns to answer the referral question: Is (this person) properly diagnosed as having a Learning Disorder? The person was a 35 year old man. Tests Administered: Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement Test Results and Interpretation: WAIS: W-J Achievement test: (Scaled Score (SS) Mean 100; SD 15) Broad Reading 16 %ile. SS 85 Broad Mathematics 26%ile. SS 90 Broad Written Language 31%ile. SS 93 Academic Skills 27%ile SS91 Summary: **2. Attention Deficit /Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)** is often associated with learning disorders. Here is a summary of the DSM 5 diagnostic criteria for AD/HD from Sue et al. (2007) Given these criteria, what would be the best strategies for assessment of AD/HD? Clearly, what is required is behavioural observation and behavioural report. As we've seen key information is elicited on the Connors Behavior Rating Scales from parents and teachers, and depending on the capacity of the test-taker, self-report. The BASC would be an in-vivo behaviour observation strategy. *What about "sign" approaches (vs. "sample" approaches) through the use of structured testing? In fact, much is available.* Information about a person's attentional function can be gleaned from the "working memory", "processing speed" or "cognitive efficiency" - related subtests of the WJIV or the Wechsler Intelligence Tests. We will encounter tests which could only be administered by a computer, in this area of cognitive function. The computer is able to record various features of a person's attentional function which would overwhelm any human test-giver. A specific is the Connors Continuous Performance Test (CPT). This is a computer administered test which uses a computer screen to display items and requires a keyboard response from the test-taker. It measures speed of responding, pattern of speed across the test as well as evidence of inattention due to errors in responding. These are the components of attention tested by the CPT: Graphical user interface, text, application, chat or text message Description automatically generated *Go to:* *https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGRUBAsYFk0* *On the CPT3 video the brief demonstration is at the 4:25 minute point. You will find the whole video instructive - note what the commentator says about establishing the conditions for a valid test.* *Now, go back to Case \#3 on page 304 of the text and see what instruments were used to diagnose* *AD/HD in this child.* *I'll show you now what my intern found with the tests of attentional function she administered.* *Since this was an adult test-taker, she had him complete an ADHD Rating Scale Self-Report.* *Structured tests included the CPT and the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). The* *PASAT is a measure of cognitive function that assesses auditory information processing speed* *and flexibility, as well as calculation ability. * What my intern found with the tests of attentional function she administered was as follows: Tests Utilized: ADHD Rating Scale Self-Report Continuous Performance Test (CPT) Paced Serial Addition Test (PASAT) WAIS subtests from: Working Memory; Processing Speed Index Results: 1. WAIS subtests P.S.I. (Symbol Search S.S. 5; 5%ile. -- Borderline between Low Average and Extremely Low) 2\. Continuous Performance Test -- the range of 60 -- 69%ile. is considered Clinically Elevated. We can see two subscale scores in this range. Inattentiveness: 59%ile. Vigilance: 78%ile. ✓ Sustained Attention: 55%ile. Impulsivity: 92%ile. ✓ 3\. On the PASAT his scores were below the 20%ile. at all speeds of stimulus presentation, pointing to weakness. So, she concluded that the evidence supported the finding that he had weakness overall in attentional function, consistent with AD/HD. **3. Intellectual Disability** You'll recall from Abnormal Psychology that there are two key criteria which must be met for a diagnosis of Intellectual Disability.  As far as the intellectual disability is concerned, subcategories are per the following IQ distribution. What is the shape of this distribution? ("normal") Chart, line chart Description automatically generated *We've looked at both the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler scales (and the Woodcock-Johnson* *Cognitive Ability test) which would be suitable instruments for measuring intellectual function* *level.* Adaptive function is assessed via report by parent or teacher, or by direct observation. One of the most commonly employed instruments is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. This instrument measures the person's [typical] adaptive function with regard to Communication, Daily Living Skills and Socialization to yield an Adaptive Behavior Composite score. *Go to text pp. 236 - 241 for the Vineland.*