Scientific Skills Notes PDF

Scientific Skills © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  A systematic process for solving problems and gaining knowledge through Scientific meth...

Scientific Skills © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  A systematic process for solving problems and gaining knowledge through Scientific method careful observation, questioning, and drawing conclusions based on evidence. Investigative question Investigation design Interpretation of data The main question guiding the investigation. Planning stage that outlines how the The process of examining collected data Sets the direction for data collection. investigation will be conducted. to identify patterns, relationships, and trends. Apparatus Hypothesis The equipment and materials needed Graphs A prediction based on prior knowledge. to conduct the experiment. Visual representation of data that makes it easier to identify trends and Method comparisons. Variables A detailed step-by-step procedure outlining Calculations Factors that change or how the investigation will be carried out. Quantitative analysis to derive influence the experiment. meaningful information from data. For Independent Observations & data example, averages, percentages, and ratios. The variable you change on purpose. Detailed records of what is observed or measured. Dependent Conclusion The variable measured in response to Qualitative Summarises findings based on the data changes in the independent variable. Descriptive data that provides details collected. States whether the hypothesis about qualities and characteristics. was correct, discusses learning points, Controlled and suggests improvements. Variables that are kept constant to Quantitative ensure a fair test and valid results. Numerical data. © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  Starting the investigation Identify the problem Variables What are you curious about? Factors that change or influence the experiment. The independent variable you change on purpose. Set an aim The dependent variable is measured in response to changes in the independent variable. A clear goal. This is what you hope to find out from the investigation. Controlled variables that are kept constant to ensure a fair test and valid results. Formulate an investigative question Ask a specific question that you can answer through investigation. Should be testable. It must be able to answer the question through Develop a hypothesis observation or experimentation. Make a prediction based on what you know. Must include the independent variable and dependent variable. Framed in terms of how one factor affects another. I.e., it should not Based on prior knowledge, research, or observations. have a yes or no answer. Directly related to the investigative question. Must be closely related to the aim of the investigation. Predicts a specific relationship or effect between the variables. Structure: How does [independent variable] affect [dependent variable]? Structure: Always end with a question mark. If [independent variable], then [dependent variable].  Investigative design Apparatus Method The equipment and materials needed A detailed step-by-step procedure outlining to conduct the experiment. how the investigation will be carried out. Choosing apparatus Writing the method Choose equiptment and materials that fits the The steps must be in the sequence (the order they must be investigation’s aim. followed). Opt for apparatus that provide reliable and accurate Use active voice, and start with the verb to keep the measurements. For example, a measuring cylinder instead of instructions concise and actionable. beaker to measure volume. Avoid pronouns. Don’t use “you” or “I”. Consider both safety and availability of apparatus. Quantify where possible to ensure precision. For example, add 5 grams of salt to 50 ml of water. Apparatus in scientific report Specify any conditions to make it easy to replicate. For example, the temperature or duration. List items clearly and specify quantities. For example, 2 beakers or 250 ml water. Include relevant precautions and potential risks for each step. For example, pour acid slowly or wear heat resistant Use correct scientific names for apparatus. For example, gloves. deflagrating spoon, instead of just spoon. Only include the necessary steps, avoid irrelevant actions. For For complex setups, provide a labelled diagram to illustrate the example, arrange the lab bence to look neat before starting. layout. (For example, electrical circuits or fractional distillation.  Apparatus Scientific apparatus includes tools and equipment used in experiments to measure, mix, observe, or analyse substances and reactions. In Chemistry, apparatus like beakers, test tubes, and Bunsen burners are common, while Physics uses tools like voltmeters and oscilloscopes, and Life Sciences employs microscopes and Petri dishes. Selecting the right apparatus helps ensure accuracy, safety, and clear results in investigations. Volumetric pipette Beaker Deflagrating Thistle Conical spoon Dropper pipette Wire gauze Retort stand funnel funnel Burette Crucible Volumetric flask Test tube Tongs Test tube rack Test tube holder Measuring cylinder Conical flask Bunsen Erlenmeyer flask burner Watch glass Liquid-in-glass thermometer Glass rod Spatula  Apparatus Three-beam balance Mortar and pestle Electronic balance Pulley Condenser Spring balance Newton balance Slide Tripod Scalpel Stopwatch Lab coat Syringe Microscope Dissecting Separating Evaporating scissors Forceps Pendulum funnel dish Goggles Gas jar and cover Ruler Gloves Tweezer Petri dish Filter paper Rubber stoppers  Scientific drawings A detailed, accurate, and labelled diagram used in science. Guidelines for drawing Additional guidelines Guidelines for labels Use a sharp pencil for drawing A title that indicates what the drawing In pen (lines and description). (preferably HB). shows. Drawn with a ruler. No shading, use clear lines. Include magnification or scale in caption or in the corner of drawing if Do not cross. Large enough to see all structures. available. No arrowheads. Correctly proportioned. Touch the part or structure labelled. Usually 2D. Aligned neatly, one below each other. Preferably on one side of diagram. Example drawing © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  Measurements Determining the quantity, length, or amount of something. Measurement questions Practical tips Which quantity is being measured? Take multiple measurements. What unit is being used? Check tool cailbration (balance set to zero). How precise is the measurement? Record measurements immediately. How accurate is the measurement? Use multiples when measuring very small quantities to reduce the impact of human error. For example, pendulum swings, measuring the circumference of a pencil. Accuracy vs. precision How close a measurement is to the How close repeated Common measurement errors measurements are to each true value. other. Misreading the scale. Misaligned or damaged tools. Accuracy is about being Precision is aobut being Parallax error: This occurs when the scale is viewed at an angle, leading correct. consistent. to incorrect readings. Always view in line with the scale. No accuracy Accuracy No accuracy Accuracy No precision No precision Precision Precision  SI units Metric conversions The International System of Units (SI), The process of changing a measurement from one metric unit to the standard system of measurement another, using base-10 prefixes. used in science globally. WHY? WHY? Allows for easier calculations and clearer communication of very large To ensure consistency and or very small measurements. Units of measurement comparability in scientific METRIC PREFIXES: experiments and results worldwide. A symbol or letter added before a metric unit to indicate a multiple or BASE UNITS: fraction of that unit. Seven fundamental units not derived Metric prefixes simplify large or small values. from any other unit. Some prefixes are used for large numbers, and others for small numbers. Seven base units: Length: Metre (m) Mass: Kilogram (kg) Time: Seconds (s) Electric current: Ampere (A) Temperature: Kelvin (K) Amount of substance: Mole (mol) Luminous intensity: Candela (cd) DERIVED UNITS: A unit of measurement formed by combining base units. Some examples: -2 Force: Newton (N) → N = kg⋅m⋅s 2 -2 Energy: Joules (J) → J = kg⋅m ⋅s Charge: Coulomb (C) → C = A⋅s © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  Guidelines for constructing a table Tables Rectangular grid with rows and columns drawn with a ruler. Clear heading for table with both variables. A structured summary of First column should be the independent variable. information in rows Columns should have headings. and columns that help compare and Column headings should include the unit for data that has units. analyse data easily. Units should not be included in the body of the table. Numerical data in the table should be rounded to the same number of decimal places. © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  Graphs and charts Graphs and charts visually represent large sets of information in a simplified, easy-to-understand format. Line graphs Bar graphs Histograms Pie charts Show the relationship Compares values across Displays grouped Circular chart to represent between two types of different categories. continuous data. parts of a whole. continuous data. Used when the Used when the Each sector represents a Best for displaying trends independent variable is independent variable is different category that or relationship between not continuous. continuous, but grouped forms part of a larger variables. into categories. category. Bars are separate for Both variables are each category. Bars are connected, showing Each sector’s size is continuous. continuous intervals proportional to the EXAMPLE: quantity it represents. EXAMPLE: Rainfall in different EXAMPLE: Temperature changes regions. Number of people in EXAMPLE: over time. different age ranges. Percentage breakdown of energy sources. © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward. Heading Best fit line or dot-to-dot? Describes what the graph represents. Line of best fit Dot-to-dot FORMAT: Graph showing [dependent variable] Single smooth line (curve or straight). Connects each point. vs. [independent variable] Approximately equal points above and Shows how values changes below, but should represent the trend. and highlights fluctuations, Axes and irregularities. Graphs - Guidelines Acknowledges measurement errors. X-axis: Independent variable Assumes perfect Useful for establishing relationships measurement of data. Y-axis: Dependent variable between variables. Mostly used in Life Sciences. Labels should include units. Better for predicting and estimating values (interpolation and extrapolation). Scale Best practice in Physical Sciences. Use intervals that fit data range. The scale should let the plotted data fill at least two-thirds of the graph area. Use equal intervals that are easy to read (1, 2, 5, 10...). Line graph Plotting data points Plot the point where the x- and y-value intersect. Make a small dot or cross where the data point is located. If required for clarity, circle the point.  Bar graph Histogram Pie charts Step 1 Step 1 Step 1 Identify the dependent and Identify the dependent and Add the data to get the total. This independent variables. independent variables. will be the denominator in your calculations. Step 2 Step 2 Draw a set of axes and label them. Draw a set of axes and label them. Step 2 Steps for drawing graphs Convert your data to angles. Divide Step 3 Step 3 by the total and multiply by 360. Add an appropriate scale on both Add a scale on both axes. The x-axis axes. The x-axis will usually have will have data ranges. The one Step 3 separate categories. range must follow on the next and Use a compass to draw a circle. Add must be the same size. in a radius for the circle. Step 4 Draw the bars. The height of the Step 4 Step 4 bars should match the value of the Draw the bars. The height of the independent variable. The bars bars should match the value of the Use a protractor to measure out the should not touch. The bars should independent variable. The bars sectors according to the angles be spaced evenly. The width of the must touch. The width of the bars calculated. Label each sector or bars should be the same. should be the same. provide a key. Step 5 Step 5 Step 5 Give your graph a heading. The Give your graph a heading. The Give your pie chart a heading. The heading must state that it is a bar heading must state that it is a heading must state that it is a pie graph and must include both histogram and must include both chart and must include both variables. variables. variables.  Conclusion Evaluation Summarises findings from the Reflects on the investigation process, noting investigation based on data collected. strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. Revisits the purpose of the Evaluate how well the method worked. Was it clear and investigation. easy to follow? Did it yield useful data? Indicates whether the data supports, partially Mention any mistakes or unexpected results, such as supports, or contradicts the hypothesis. measurement errors or uncontrollable factors. Briefly states the main finding or trends from Consider if the data was consistent and if similar results the data. would be obtained by repeating the experiment. Point out any clear relationships observed in List ideas to improve the accuracy or reliability of future the data. investigations, such as refining methods or using more precise For example: instruments. When the independent variable increases, Consider if the investigation tested what it was supposed to. Was then the dependent variable decreases. the experiment set up to fairly answer the investigative question? When the independent variable increases, then the dependent variable increases. The dependent variable is directly Reliability Validity proportional to the independent variable. This means how consistent This means whether the The dependent variable is inversely our results are. If we repeat experiment is actually proportional to the independent variable. an experiment several times testing what we want to Note any limitations that could affect the and get the same or very test. If our setup is designed conclusion (e.g., sample size, accuracy of similar results each time, we to answer our investigative measurements). say the experiment is question accurately, then reliable. we say it has good validity. © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.  Rounding Scientific notation Using formulas Simplifying a number to a Expressing large or small Replacing variables in an specified decimal place or numbers as a product of a equation with given values to nearest whole number. number between 1 and 10 and calculate missing values. a power of 10. Identify the decimal place to Write down the formula. round to. Move the decimal point to make Substitute the known values for Mathematical Skills the number between 1 and 10. each variable in the formula, Look at the digit one place to the right of the target decimal: Count the places moved to leaving only the variable you need If it’s 5 or higher, round up. determine the power of 10. to solve. (Remember to check the If it’s 4 or lower, keep the If you move left, the exponent units of the given values.) number the same. will be positive. Rearrange the formula and solve If you move right, the exponent the unknown. will be negative. Write in the form M x 10n, where M is the adjusted number between 1 and 10, and n is the exponent. © Material designed by Curro Digital Learning. No part of it can be used without express written permission. Created by M Woolward.