Science Final Notes AT4 PDF

**Earth and Space** **I can describe the earth's structure in terms of core, mantle, crust and lithosphere:** **Earth\'s structure contains the:** **Crust: Outside layer of the Earth, made up of mostly basalt and granite. The 2 types of crust are continental and oceanic. Continental crust is less...

**Earth and Space** **I can describe the earth's structure in terms of core, mantle, crust and lithosphere:** **Earth\'s structure contains the:** **Crust: Outside layer of the Earth, made up of mostly basalt and granite. The 2 types of crust are continental and oceanic. Continental crust is less dense, thicker and mainly composed of granite and Oceanic crust is more dense, thinner and mainly made of composed basalt. This layer is 4.8-69 kilometres thick and temperatures can range from 200-400 degrees celsius in the hottest parts** **Mantle: The mantle is 84 percent of Earth\'s volume and contains many parts. The parts we need to know are the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.** **Lithosphere: The lithosphere is made of crust and mantle. It is made of tectonic plates, which float on top of the asthenosphere. They stay solid, due to the high pressure from the crust and mantle, is 145-165 km thick and is about 300-500 degrees celsius** **Asthenosphere: A layer of solid rock below the lithosphere, where the extreme pressure and heats around 1300 degrees celsius cause the rocks to flow like liquid. This flow causes the tectonic plates to move.** **Outer Core: This layer is about 2,200 kilometres (1,367 miles) thick and is primarily composed of molten iron and nickel. It exists in a liquid state due to high temperatures, which range between 4,000°C and 6,000°C (7,200°F to 10,800°F). The movement of the liquid iron in the outer core generates Earth's magnetic field.** **Inner Core: Beneath the outer core, the inner core is a solid sphere composed of iron and some nickel, with a thickness of approximately 1,200 kilometres (746 miles). Temperatures in the inner core can reach as high as 5,000°C to 7,000°C (9,000°F to 12,600°F), yet the pressure at this depth is so intense that it keeps the core solid despite the extreme heat.** **I can explain and differentiate between a renewable and non-renewable resources** **Renewable Source: A renewable resource is a natural resource that can regenerate naturally, allowing it to be sustainably used over time.** **Non Renewable Source: A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that does not replenish at a sufficient rate for sustainable extraction, like fossil fuels, which take millions of years to form.** **I can outline features of some non-renewable resources, including metal ores and fossil fuels** **Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas. These are made from ancient plants and animals that were buried and compressed over millions of years. For example, coal is used to produce electricity, but burning it releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that affects the climate. Fossil fuels are limited because they take so long to form, and we are using them up faster than they can be replaced.** **Metal Ores: Metals like iron and copper are extracted from the Earth in the form of metal ores. For instance, iron ore is mined to make steel, which is used in buildings and bridges. However, mining metal ores damages ecosystems, and metal supplies are also limited, as they can eventually run out due to high demand.** **I can describe uses of a variety of natural and made resources extracted from the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere** **Biosphere: This includes all living organisms. Resources like timber from trees and cotton from plants are extracted for uses in building materials, clothing, and paper. Animals in the biosphere also provide meat, dairy, and wool for food and fabric.** **Atmosphere: The atmosphere provides air and oxygen essential for breathing and supporting life. It also includes wind energy, which is harnessed using turbines to produce electricity. Additionally, gases like carbon dioxide are used in carbonation for beverages.** **Lithosphere: This layer includes the Earth\'s crust, which is rich in minerals and metals. Metal ores like iron are mined to create steel for construction, while fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are used for energy and fuel. Building materials such as sand, clay, and stone are also extracted from the lithosphere.** **Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere includes all water bodies. Freshwater is used for drinking, agriculture, and sanitation, while saltwater bodies provide fish and seaweed for food. Hydropower is another major resource, as water flow in rivers is harnessed for energy production.** **I can discuss different viewpoints people may use to weigh criteria in making decisions about the use of major non-renewable resources found in Australia** **Environmental View: Many worry about the harm mining can cause to the environment, such as pollution and habitat destruction. They often argue for switching to renewable energy sources to protect nature.** **Economic View: Non-renewable resources are essential to Australia's economy, creating jobs and contributing to exports. Supporters of mining often focus on these financial benefits.** **Community View: People living near mines have mixed opinions. While some appreciate the job opportunities, others are concerned about the impact on their land and lifestyle.** **Long-term View: Some believe that since non-renewable resources will eventually run out, it's important to find more sustainable ways to use them, investing in better technology and alternatives.** **Global Responsibility: Because of its resource exports, Australia has a role in supporting global environmental efforts, aiming to reduce greenhouse emissions and combat climate change.** **I can outline strategies used by people to conserve and manage non-renewable resources eg. recycling** ### **Recycling and Reusing** **Recycling materials like metals, plastics, and paper helps reduce waste and the need to use new resources. For example, recycling aluminum saves a lot of energy and decreases the demand for mining new materials.** ### **Energy Efficiency** **Making machines and homes more energy-efficient means they use less energy. This helps save fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which are limited resources and harmful to the environment.** ### **Alternative Resources** **Switching to renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydroelectric power helps reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. This is important for producing clean energy without hurting the planet.** ### **Sustainable Mining Practices** **Using better technology and following strict rules in mining can make it less harmful to the environment. This helps to protect nature and ensures we can keep getting important resources for a long time.** ### **Conservation Policies** **Governments create rules to encourage responsible use of resources and protect the environment. This can include things like setting fuel efficiency standards for cars and offering rewards for using renewable energy.** ### **1. Describe the conditions from which fossils are made** **Fossils are formed in specific conditions, typically when organisms are buried quickly by sediment (like mud, sand, or silt) after they die. Over time, the sediment layers build up, and the pressure from the layers compresses the remains, turning them into fossils. The best conditions for fossilization occur in wet environments, such as river deltas or ocean floors, where organisms can be quickly covered and preserved.** ### **2. Describe how sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks are related through naturally occurring processes** - - - ### **3. Relate the formations of a range of landforms to physical and chemical weathering, erosion, and deposition** **Landforms are shaped by processes like:** - - - ### **4. Classify rocks into groups according to their observable properties** **Rocks can be classified into three main groups based on observable properties:** - - - ### **5. Explain how a geological history can be interpreted from a sequence of sedimentary layers** **Geologists study sedimentary layers, or strata, to understand the Earth\'s history. Each layer represents a period of time and may contain fossils that provide clues about the environment at that time. By examining the order of the layers (the Law of Superposition), scientists can determine which layers are older and reconstruct past climates, sea levels, and even the types of organisms that existed in those periods.** ### **6. Explain the water cycle in terms of the physical processes involved** ### **1. Evaporation** **Water changes from a liquid to a gas (water vapor) when it is heated by the sun. This process occurs mainly in oceans, lakes, and rivers, and also from soil and plants.** ### **2. Transpiration** **Plants absorb water through their roots and release water vapor into the air through small openings in their leaves. This adds moisture to the atmosphere.** ### **3. Condensation** **Water vapor cools and changes back into tiny liquid droplets, forming clouds. This happens when warm, moist air rises and cools in the atmosphere.** ### **4. Precipitation** **When water droplets in clouds become heavy, they fall to the ground as precipitation, which can be rain, snow, sleet, or hail, depending on the temperature.** ### **5. Infiltration** **Precipitation soaks into the ground, replenishing groundwater supplies. Water moves through soil and rock layers until it reaches the water table.** ### **6. Runoff** **When the ground is saturated or the water cannot be absorbed quickly enough, it flows over the surface as runoff, collecting in streams, rivers, and lakes.** ### **7. Collection** **Water gathers in bodies of water like oceans, lakes, and rivers. This collected water eventually evaporates again, continuing the water cycle.** ### **7. Demonstrate knowledge of the water cycle** **The water cycle is a continuous process that keeps water moving through different states (liquid, vapor, and solid) and locations (atmosphere, land, and oceans). For example, when the sun heats water in a lake, it evaporates into the air, forms clouds, and eventually falls back to the ground as precipitation, replenishing the lake.** ### **8. Describe methods for extracting useful resources from rocks (oress** ### **What is Strip Mining?** **Strip mining is a type of surface mining where layers of soil and rock (known as overburden) are removed to access minerals or coal close to the Earth\'s surface. This technique is often used for mining coal, phosphate, and other materials located in shallow deposits. The process involves:** 1. 2. 3. 4. ### **Environmental Impacts** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ### **Economic Impacts** 1. 2. 3. 4. ### **Governmental Impacts** 1. 2. 3. 4. ### **9. Identify the Earth's four main spheres and features of them** **The Earth has four main spheres:** - - - - **1. What are cells and their functions?** **Definition:** **A cell is the smallest unit of life that can carry out all the necessary processes of living organisms. Cells can exist as independent organisms (like bacteria) or as part of multicellular organisms (like plants and animals).** **Function:** **Provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialised functions** **2. I can identify the different parts of the cell and I can define all cell organelles and describe their function and I can identify the key differences between animal and plant cells.** **Animal:** **Cytoplasm: Place where all chemical reactions take place** **Mitochondria: Where energy is released by respiration** **Nucleus: Contains genetic information, which controls the activities in the cell** **Cell Membrane: Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell** **Plant:** **Plant:** **Cytoplasm: Place where all chemical reactions take place** **Mitochondria: Where energy is released by respiration** **Nucleus: Contains genetic information, which controls the activities in the cell** **Cell Membrane: Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell** **Chloroplast: Contains Chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis** **Vacuole: Filled with cell sap/water to help keep the cell turgid** **Cell Wall: Strengthens the cell**  **Animals cells do not have Vacuole, Cell Wall and Cytoplasm** **I can identify that new cells are produced by cell division** **Mitosis:** **Duplicates: The cell copies its DNA.** **Lines Up: The copied chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.** **Splits: The cell pulls the copies apart, dividing into two identical cells.** **Meiosis:** **Duplicates: The cell copies its DNA, just like in mitosis.** **Splits Once: The cell splits in two, so each new cell has a mix of the original DNA.** **Splits Again: Each of these cells splits again without copying the DNA, resulting in four unique cells, each with half the DNA.**  **Both are only in eukaryotic cells. Mitosis can happen in uni and muticellular organisms, and meiosis only in multicellular** **Binary Fission:** **The DNA duplicates inside the single, circular chromosome of the prokaryote.** **The cell elongates and the DNA copies move to opposite ends.** **A cell membrane forms down the middle, dividing the cell.** **The cell splits into two identical daughter cells, each with a complete set of DNA.** **This only happens in prokaryotic cells** **I can draw a flow chart on the different levels of organisation between cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and organisms**  **I can distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms** **Unicellular Organisms: A unicellular organism is a living organism that consists of a single cell. This single cell carries out all the functions necessary for the organism\'s survival, such as feeding, growth, reproduction, and waste removal. They dont have a nucleus, mitochondria or organelles and are mostly prokaryotes. They don't have senses but respond to conditions such as change in temperature, light and touch** **Examples: Bacteria, Archea and some Algea** **Multicellular Organisms: A multicellular organism is a living being composed of multiple cells that work together to perform various functions. They have a nucleus, mitochondria and some have chloroplasts. Certain multicellular cells called protozoans can move, by propelling themselves through water by using a tiny hair shaped structure** **Examples: Animals, Plants and Fungi** **I can describe the functions of the parts of a plant, including the flower, root, stem and leaf** **Flower:** - **Root:** - - - **Stem:** - - - **Leaf:** - - - **I can describe osmosis, transpiration and stomata structure** ### **Osmosis** **Osmosis is the movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane, which is found in the cell walls of plant cells. Water moves from areas of lower concentration (outside the roots) to areas of higher concentration (inside the plant cells) to keep the plant hydrated.** ### **Transpiration** **Transpiration is the process where water vapor exits the plant through tiny openings called stomata, mainly located on the underside of leaves.As soon as the water leaves it becomes vapour. This water loss creates a pull that helps draw more water and nutrients up from the roots and keeps the plant cool.** ### **Stomata Structure** **Stomata are small pores on the leaf and stem surfaces, surrounded by guard cells. These guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata. When the plant has enough water, the guard cells swell to open the stomata for carbon dioxide intake. If water is scarce, the guard cells shrink to close the stomata and reduce water loss.** **I can outline the role of cellular respiration and can link its relationship to photosynthesis** ### **Cellular Respiration** - - - - ### **Relationship to Photosynthesis** - - - - **I can identify the location of and materials required and produced in cellular respiration and photosynthesis** ### **Cellular Respiration** - - - - - - - - - ### **Photosynthesis** - - - - - - - - - **I can identify the different parts of the Circulatory system** ### **1. Heart** **The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body. It has four chambers and several important valves that direct blood flow:** - - - - - - - - - - -  ### **2. Blood Vessels** **Blood vessels are the channels through which blood flows. They include arteries, veins, and capillaries, each with unique functions and properties.** - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **3. Blood** - - - - - ### **4. Lungs** - **I can identify the different parts of the Digestive System** **Mouth:** - **Esophagus:** - **Stomach:\ The stomach is a muscular, bag-like organ that plays a key role in breaking down food. It mixes the food with gastric juices that contain hydrochloric acid and enzymes, which help in breaking down proteins into smaller molecules. The stomach's walls contract to churn and mix the food, forming a semi-liquid mixture called chyme. This churning action also stretches the stomach, aiding in mixing and gradually moving chyme toward the small intestine.** **Small Intestine:\ The small intestine is a long, coiled tube where the majority of digestion and absorption happens. It breaks down food with enzymes and bile, and its inner lining is covered with small, finger-like structures called villi that increase surface area for absorbing nutrients directly into the bloodstream. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine while any undigested material continues to the large intestine for further processing.** **Large Intestine (Colon):\ The large intestine absorbs water and salts from the material that wasn't digested in the small intestine, which helps prevent dehydration. It compacts the leftover food matter into solid waste, or feces, which is stored in the rectum until elimination.** **Each part of the digestive system has adapted specific structures, like the villi in the small intestine, to effectively absorb and move food through the system, ensuring that nutrients are efficiently extracted and waste is prepared for excretion.** **Rectum:** - **Anus:** - **Accessory Organs:** - - - - **I can explain the main role of the different human body systems (circulatory, digestive, excretory, skeletal, muscular and reproductive)** ### **1. Circulatory System** **The circulatory system moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, and waste around the body. It includes the heart and blood vessels, helping to keep all body parts supplied with what they need.** ### **2. Digestive System** **The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that the body can use for energy and growth. It includes organs like the mouth, stomach, and intestines that help process food and eliminate waste.** ### **3. Excretory System** **The excretory system removes waste products and helps balance water and salts in the body. It includes the kidneys, which filter blood to make urine and get rid of harmful substances.** ### **4. Skeletal System** **The skeletal system gives the body its shape and support, protects organs, and allows movement with the help of muscles. It consists of bones and cartilage and also produces blood cells.** ### **5. Muscular System** **The muscular system allows the body to move and maintain posture. It includes three types of muscles: skeletal muscles (for voluntary movement), smooth muscles (for involuntary movement in organs), and cardiac muscles (in the heart).** ### **6. Reproductive System** **The reproductive system is responsible for producing offspring. In males, it produces sperm; in females, it produces eggs and supports the growth of a baby during pregnancy.** **I can identify technologies that are applicable to the above body systems** ### **1. Circulatory System** **Cardiovascular monitoring devices, like heart rate monitors and blood pressure cuffs, help track heart health. ECG machines measure the heart\'s electrical activity to find problems.** ### **2. Digestive System** **Endoscopy uses a flexible tube with a camera to see inside the digestive tract. Digestive enzymes can help people who have trouble breaking down food.** ### **3. Excretory System** **Dialysis machines filter blood for people with kidney failure when their kidneys can't work properly. Urinalysis technology analyses urine to check for signs of health issues.** ### **4. Skeletal System** **X-rays and MRI scans help doctors diagnose bone fractures and other problems. Prosthetic limbs are artificial devices that replace missing arms or legs to improve movement.** ### **5. Muscular System** **Electromyography (EMG) measures the electrical activity of muscles to find disorders. Rehabilitation equipment, like exercise machines, helps strengthen muscles after an injury.** ### **6. Reproductive System** **Ultrasound machines create images of a developing fetus during pregnancy. Fertility treatments, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), assist couples in having children.** 1. - 2. **I can describe the chemical changes that occur in everyday life** **Rusting: Iron reacts with oxygen and water to form rust.** **Burning: Fuels burn with oxygen to create heat, carbon dioxide, and water.** **Cooking: Heat changes the chemical structure of food (like frying eggs).** **Baking: Yeast ferments dough, producing gas that makes it rise.** **Digestion: Your body breaks down food into nutrients through chemical reactions.** **Photosynthesis: Plants turn sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen.** **Fermentation: Microbes convert sugars into acids or alcohol (used in yogurt and beer).** **Decomposition: Organic matter breaks down into new substances.** **Precipitation: Mixing certain liquids can create a solid (like vinegar and baking soda)**