Animal Biology and Biodiversity PDF

Here's a structured markdown conversion of the text including descriptions of mathematical formulas implied by the text: ## Animal Biology and Biodiversity A variety of living beings are displayed at all levels of biological organization. These are applied at three levels: ### GENETIC Genetic vari...

Here's a structured markdown conversion of the text including descriptions of mathematical formulas implied by the text: ## Animal Biology and Biodiversity A variety of living beings are displayed at all levels of biological organization. These are applied at three levels: ### GENETIC Genetic variation within a population or species. Biodiversity within a species is still important when everything is going well; we can also be clones. ### Species Represents the number or diversity of species in a given ecosystem. ### ECOSYSTEM Represents the variety of ecosystems in a specific area. ### Measuring Biodiversity: Measure by: * counting the number of individuals ("abundance", N), * counting the number of species ("species richness S"), * measuring the species diversity ("relative abundance", H), * and finally apply a formula. ### How Biodiversity is Created Evolution is never linear, and there is never a specific goal. We are not descended from monkeys; the monkeys of that time are not the monkeys we have now. We speak of biological evolution, understood as a change over a very long time; no one evolves in their lifetime. It is not even an "improvement," as there is no final goal. ### Phenotypic Plasticity When something changes during an organism's life. ### Evolution A change in the (very long) time of inheritable characteristics that is observed in a population. ### Allele Frequencies Not all types of evolution are adaptive; those that do not lead to adaptations are called "non-adaptive." ### Adaptation It is a change brought upon by natural selection that confers advantages in terms of survival and/or reproduction, thereby increasing fitness. Each species is able to generate many more individuals than those that survive, such as the sunfish, which lays 300 million eggs at a time. This is because the larvae must overcome challenges to grow, such as competition caused by a scarcity of resources. ### Intraspecific Variability There exists variability that leads to different phenotypic traits and behaviors. Variability is, at least in part, heritable. Darwin hypothesized "gemmules", and then Mendel arrived. However, they did not know each other, and Mendel arrived a bit later. Darwin did not know about DNA so that, by uniting these two ideas, we can understand how evolution works. Darwin knew about artificial selection, however it has a different purpose. ### Natural Selection In short: vision * **Variation:** There must be intraspecific variability, which can arise from: * **Mutations:** Errors that occur in cells such as gametes. These can be selected; evolution plays on these. The changes may also be neutral, disadvantageous, or advantageous. * **Gene Flow:** The arrival of someone in a population who brings new genetic material, perhaps characteristic of another group. This is also known simply as "migration". * **Crossing over:** The genetic recombination of sexual reproduction, there is also the independent pairing of chromosomes, which confers variability. * **Inheritance:** Inheritability: Acquired characteristics are not heritable, so they do not cause evolution. * **Selection:** The selection is the filter that keeps the characteristics that increase fitness. Individuals with characteristics advantageous to the environment in which they live (biotic and abiotic) are more likely to live and reproduce. * **Time:** The individual does not evolve, but rather the population evolves over time (which is usually very long). ### Adaptation Natural selection is the only evolutionary process that leads to adaptation (which is at the level of the population, but selection acts upon individual individuals). Adaptation is the set of things that allows us to live in a given environment. This can be: * structural/anatomical, * physiological/the metabolic, * or Behavioral. **NB:** * Individuals do NOT adapt during their lifetime in an evolutionary sense. Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce multiple phenotypes in response to environmental changes (biotic or abiotic). * Plasticity is NOT heritable. ### Evolution Occurs at the species level, but is the result of selection on individuals. Characteristics beneficial to the species but not to the individual cannot evolve. Can be non-adaptive: Changes in the allele frequencies of a population that are not the result of natural selection, not caused by the selection of characteristics that increase fitness. Mutations are random with respect to the effects they unleash; if they increase fitness, they are selected positively by natural selection; if they produce negative effects, they are eliminated. However, neutral mutations become fixed by genetic drift; they can lead to non-adaptive evolution, without any selection. ### Genetic correlation Two or more characteristics are associated, and when one is propagated, it drags the other along with it (linkage disequilibrium), or because the selection of one characteristic causes the indirect selection of another. ### Non-genetic association Two characteristics are associated due to morphological constraints, behavioral or energetic characteristics. ### Migration: Gene Flow: new genes are introduced into the population. ### Genetic drift By chance, someone survives/reproduces more than others; occurs mainly in small populations. This is called a "bottleneck"- a dramatic reduction in the size of a population such as that which might occur during a volcanic erruption ### Founder effect When a few individuals colonize a new region ### Selective perssure Any factor can create an environment that leads directly into positive or negative selection * **Ex:** competition for predation food, disease... It is important in the characteristics of the environment ### Direction How can selection be undertaken? ### Directional selection Selects phenotypes to an extreme: the mean shifts. **Ex:** beetles with shades of green become totally dark green to blend in with the leaves. ### Stabilizing selection Eliminates the most extreme phenotypes, stabilizes the mean, reducing the variance. **Ex:** the beetles that were previously green all become a medium green. ### Disruptive selection Selects phenotypes on both ends **Ex:** the beetles of the beginning become dark green and light green. (Darwin's finches with specialized beaks) ### Complex structures Such as the vertebrate eye: if its use could not be anticipated, how did it evolve? It can only get better gradually; first there was a single cell with photoreceptor capacities, and little by little it improved. Rarely is behavior taught, it is generally innate, so it is given by genes, so it evolved (even what is taught has a genetic basis in the parent) like the fratino that pretends to be injured to take the predator away from the eggs. The caterpillar with the appearance of a snake has adopted a defensive strategy; this very accurate mimicry and distance from the head increases its chances of living. Again, it starts little by little to arrive at the most beautiful part at Clelia: The first to say the snake will kill those who were pushing to do this is megangerosa. If there was no advantage then, we would not see those that are dying. This was because they did not see the leons that are reproducing more than the others and survive. We speak of sexual selection. ### Sexual selection Is about increasing the number of ways to reproduce: is about reproducing more from the others and survive. Sex often is used even despite other negative parts. This is because males and females of the same species are subjects to the same parasites and predators. ### Sexual Diomorphism Differences between males and females of the same species. This is not explained by natural selection, also because, like the males, the way to make others make a lot if energy that the male spends compared to the female, having to deal with parts combined to those modifications. Not only are they structures and colors, but it can also be behaviors, like dances or drawings in sand. Darwin wrote "the natural selection" He couldn't explain those thing s that were there I can’t explain some sex, so what I'm doing that’s more for all over after. It doesn’t just help for reproducing, it helps better the the process can be a bit slower. It’s the reproductive investments, the energy involved to reproduction for example. it there can exist many types of sex, and if they are in agreement with each other. For all the mammals, what are make vs female. They produce gemmies in all the different dimensions in creation but sperm is basically dna transport inside of other things. If sex is really high so the female has a choice of giving birth at a 50/50 ration rate but some of the female aren’t, and are stuck what is that. The chance of most men having little girl are very small. The production over time and we can get with having less sex more and more It is important to explain the ornaments in a macho’s way. In a woman to produce the ability to have kids in a more selective way. the males increase their products to in which in the right people but are more of those a way for the next thing. This is on the next thing to the next step In general if that all the part, all the contracts for humans, all are that all they are. Sexual Selection, thus favorees in males thus traits there increased of success. What they are favored as is it is important to know them that’s what I want. First section inside it is so we can also tell a bit better. 2 types for benefits better of the territory also get the the territories from For the most part I have a better chance on those territories so as to know that I get to know it’s a better one for my gene pool. Thanks to good luck on a lot good for you, get good I need to find more the other. What’s up we got those and all on this side is it easy with good I guess what is a good to see if I can the with the team. How is doing a bit of her hand with a cab is better