Sap Exam Review PDF

Sap Exam review Unit 1: Anthropology Anthropology- the study of human behaviour in societies and culture. Anthropologists study how humans live and interact with their social and physical environments both in the present and past. Cultural anthropology: study of both past and present cultures. Stud...

Sap Exam review Unit 1: Anthropology Anthropology- the study of human behaviour in societies and culture. Anthropologists study how humans live and interact with their social and physical environments both in the present and past. Cultural anthropology: study of both past and present cultures. Study history, structure of language and the physical remains of past cultures ​ Ethnology: Ethnologists immerse themselves in a culture for months or years and take meticulous notes ​ Linguistic Anthropology: Study the history and structure of language and the ways humans use language ​ Archeology: Study of physical remains of a past culture through excavation Physical anthropology: study where humans as a species come from, how our bodies have evolved from past to present form, what makes humans unique ​ Paleoanthropology: study bone and stone remains of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago ​ Primatology:study of primates ​ Human variation: study of the physical differences and similarities of existing human population Ethnocentrism: the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture Cultural relativism: the view that concepts and moral values must be understood in their own cultural context and not judges according to the standards of a different culture Margaret Mead: ​ Famous ethnographer ​ Considered to be the most important cultural anthropologist who ever lived ​ Went on extensive field studies of the culture of people of the Pacific Islands in the 1920’s ​ Specifically lived with people in Samoa and began comparing Samoan culture to American culture ​ Discovered adolescence was not a difficult time for Samoans - unlike Americans ○​ Samoan youth were considered adults as soon as they reached physical maturity - Americans reached full adulthood in their early twenties ○​ Thus, Samoan youth experienced less conflict through the teenage years ○​ Samoans were taught to be cooperative, whereas Americans were raised to compete against each other ○​ Wrote Coming of Age in Samoa ​ ​In 1931 she traveled to New Guinea to study gender roles in different cultures. ​ Arapesh - both men and women were equal and both genders raised the children ​ Mundugumor - culture was fierce - both men and women were aggressive, often the children were left to fend for themselves  ​ Tchambuli - sex roles were reversed - women were brisk and hearty and the men were in charge of the household ​ She concluded that gender roles were learned, therefore gender roles are nurtured (not something we are born with) Konrad Lorenz ​ Studies the biology of behaviour in animals, in human aggression and violence ​ Created the imprinting theory ​ Noticed that bond/attachment would form immediately to the first moving object seen and cannot be reversed ​ Lorenz would play with hatchlings and record observations of their behaviours. ​ Conducted experiments where he would imprint different objects. Eg. Block of wood, and himself. ​ Few species of birds form this behaviour and happen in early stages of development. ​ The ducks would follow and socially bond with the imprinted object. ​ The imprinting theory allowed us to view components and get deeper insight of how behaviours and patterns come in action ​ Concluded that animal aggressive behaviour is motivated by survival while humans aggressive behaviour may be channeled or modified Franz Boas - Co founder of american anthropology - Focussed on language and culture of american native people (Kwakiutl of Pacific Northwest) - Believed anthropologists were bound to keep high records of their research and observations - Believed conclusions would only be valid if they were supported by high amounts of data - Established the link between anthropology and ethnology along with study of origins, similarities and differences between certain races and cultures Theorized cultural relativism Noam Chomsky -​ Father of modern structure linguistics -​ Learning language is possible because we are able to by our brain -​ Linguistics has shown that the 5000+ languages of the world do share rules and principles -​ He proposed the theory of universal grammar which states language acquisition is natural opposed to being learned What is culture? -​ The beliefs, social norms and material traits of a racial, religious or social group Ruth Benedict -​ An american cultural anthropologist who focused on the native people of the american plains -​ Co discovered cultural relativism: she emphasized that cultures should be understood on their own terms without judgment from other perspectives  -​ Focused on ethnocentrism, arguing no culture is superior to others -​ Discovered normal vs abnormal: She rejected universal ideas of normality, showing that what is considered “normal” in one culture may be seen as “abnormal” in another, highlighting the cultural basis Feral children -​ Children separated from their own species and raised by another species unlike them -​ Isolated from human contact at a young age -​ Learned behaviour of animals they lived among (nurture) -​ Example: Koko the gorilla The Leakys (Mary and Louis) -​ In 1964 the leakeys discovered Homo Habilis (closest discovery that resembled humans) -​ Homo Habilis knew how to survive, build tools, hunt -​ Smaller jaw, fewer teeth, like humans -​ Dated 2 million years ago -​ Another discovery was footprints which belonged to a species of Australopithecus, similar to Lucy in a region called Laetoli Dian Fossey Discovered: conduct studies on silverback gorillas Jane Goodall Discovered: found chimpanzees eat meat, use and make tools, capable of cooperation and experience sorrow, jow, creativity Charles Darwin -​ Discovered evolution -​ Went on an expedition to galapagos island where he noticed the evolution of the finch birds beak when exploring various islands Natural selection -​ Members of a species that survive past their unique characteristics to their offspring. Weaker species die off -​ Example: finch bird, plants moving towards sun to survive, more or less hair/thin or thick blood depending on what part of the world you live in 4 characteristics of humans 1.​ brain/complex thinking 2.​ bipedalism/ get far distances, hand free 3.​ Opposable thumbs/ grasp, manipulate tools 4.​ Vocal apparatus/developed language Nature vs nurture Nature- determined by our dna, our biology and inherited characteristics Nurture- what we larn, our environments and experiences that shape us Five characteristics of culture 1.​ Learned 2.​ Shared 3.​ Symbolic 4.​ Integrated 5.​ dynamic Evolution vs creationism Evolution: -​ Scientific theory based on evidence -​ Explains biodiversity through natural processes -​ Constantly updated with new discoveries Creationism: -​ Based on religious beliefs and interpretations -​ Attributes diversity to divine creation -​ Resistant to change based on scientific findings Unit 2: Psychology Psychology- The study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behavior in a given context Branches of psychology Functionalism: focuses on the purpose of mental process and behaviour Structuralism: broken down mental processes into their most basic components Behaviourist: the study of observable behaviours Psychoanalyst- an approach delving into the unconscious mind, exploring how repressed thoughts, memories and desired influence behaviour/emotions Humanists- emphasizes the goodness of people and their potential for personal growth Cognitive psychologist- study of mental process such as perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving and language Sigmund Freud ​ Neurologist ​ Founder of psychoanalysis Psychosexual stages 1.​ Oral Stage (0-1 years) ➔​ Focus on mouth ➔​ Infants find pleasure in oral activities  ➔​ Fixation in this stage can lead to behaviours such as smoking, overeating, nail-biting etc. ➔​ 2.​ Anal Stage (1-3 years) ➔​ Anus (bowel and bladder movements) ➔​ Toddlers begin to gain control of bodily functions ➔​ A fixation in this stage can lead to an anal-retentive personality (obsessive and organized)or an anal-expulsive personality (disorganized, messy and rebellious) 3.​ Phallic Stage (3-6 years) ➔​ Genitals ➔​ Aware of sexual differences/begin to focus on their genitals ➔​ Fixations in this stage can lead to issues with authority, relationships, or problems with identity 4.​ Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) ➔​ Sexual feelings are dormant ➔​ Focus on developing social and intellectual skills ➔​ Freud believed that no fixations develop in this stage 5.​ Genital Stage (puberty onwards) ➔​ Genitals (mature sexual intimacy) ➔​ Capable of mature intimacy ➔​ Successful resolution of earlier stages leads to a well-adjusted, mature individual The id, ego and superego The Id (instincts) -​ Born with our id -​ It allows us to get basic needs (survival) -​ The instinctual part of the mind -​ Pleasure principle -​ Doesn't care about reality, only satisfaction The ego (reality) -​ As you grow your ego begins to develop -​ Reality principle -​ Job is to meet the needs of the id, while considering reality -​ Meets need in practical, ethical and socially accepted way The superego (morality) -​ Moral part of us -​ Discuss right from wrong -​ Develops at age 5 Carl Jung ​ Psychoanalytic theorist ​ Developed “analytical psychology”  ​ Proposed and developed the concepts extraverted and introverted personality, archetypes and the collection unconscious/conscious Believed: 1.​ The ego- the conscious mind 2.​ Personal conscious 3.​ collective unconscious 4.​ Personality Created Word association: say a word and analyze how patients responded, monitor their response, how long it took to reply, heart rate Alfred Adler ​ Psychoanalytic theorist ​ Worked with freud ​ Rejected freud's theory that sexuality was the key to understanding personality, he believed it was power Main Theories: -​ Individual psychology -​ inferiority complex -​ Birth order -​ 4 Personality types (ruling, avoiding, learning, socially useful) Jean Piaget -​ Swiss psychologist -​ Believed children think differently from adults -​ Genetic epistemologist: how genetics impact thought/knowledge -​ Observed that children go through a series of chronological developmental stages - believed that the self emerged step by step as the person mastered each stage (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) -​ Theorized that babies come into the world incapable of surviving on their own-they acquire the ability to survive independently by adapting to new situations as they grow and develop -​ Summarized theory -​ Children learn to master one skill before another -​ Children learn in their own way -​ Children don't learn as adults do Erik Erikson -​ Created 8 stages of development in which one's identity emerges and matures  -​ Each stage represents a dilemma that must be overcome or else a person will face difficulties later in life -​ He defines identity as an individual's stable awareness of who he/she is and what he/she believes in John Watson -​ Known for baby Albert experiment -​ Conditioned infant to fear rat -​ Discovered we are born with tabula (blank state) Stanley Milgram -​ Conducted an experiment of obedience-focussing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience Experiment: In 1961, Eichmann, a high-ranking nazi official was on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity. The world was in shock at the happenings in nazi germany that came out during the trials Conclusion: People appear more obedient to authority figures than we might expect, ordinary individuals are likely to follow orders given from an authority figure Ivan Pavlov -​ Father of behaviourism -​ Known for his dog experiment -​ The man behind classical conditioning Classical Conditioning -​ A type of learning where a once neutral stimulus come to produce a particular response after pairing with a conditioned stimulus BF Skinner -​ American psychologist -​ Father of operant conditioning Operant Conditioning -​ A type of learning that uses reward or punishment to achieve a behaviour Maslow hierarchy of needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a psychological motivational theory comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels in a pyramid. The five levels of hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self actualization Benjamin Bloom -​ A cognitive psychologist, one of the only ones connected to learning, -​ Believed that the highest level of learning a child can do is evaluation Memory Episodic: ability to remember events from the past (Severely impaired) Procedural: memory of how to do things (is intact) Semantic: knowledge of how the world works (Mildly impaired) Short term: what goes on in conscious mind, holds info for 15-20 seconds long Long term: important items with meaning stored here, no limit Cognition: acquiring, storing and retrieving information Sociopath vs psychopath Psychopath: -​ A person affected by chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behaviour -​ traits believed to be more innate linked to genetic or biological factors (differences in brain structure or function) -​ Psychopathy is considered more “nature” than “nurture” Characteristics: -​ Lack of remorse -​ Shallow emotions -​ Manipulative -​ planned/organized Sociopath -​ A person with a personality disorder manifesting itself in extreme antisocial attitudes and behaviour and a lack of conscience -​ Influenced by environmental such as trauma or childhood -​ Considered more nurture than nature Characteristics -​ Impulsivity  -​ Chaotic, reckless behaviour -​ Struggles with maintaining steady relationships/jobs -​ Less likely to plan more prone to spontaneous actions Nature vs Nurture Nature- genetic and hereditary factors that contribute to a person's physical appearance, personality and physiology Nurture- the environmental factors that affect a person, including their experiences, family and social relationships, culture and community Perception -​ The process that allows us to select, organize and interpret sensory signals in the brain Influenced by 3 factors 1.​ The object itself 2.​ The background or surroundings 3.​ The experience, feelings of the person who is perceiving Howard Gardner- Multiple intelligences 1.​ Mathematical (Logic smart) 2.​ Verbal linguistic (word smart) 3.​ Interpersonal (people smart) 4.​ Kinesthetic (body smart) 5.​ Musical (music smart) 6.​ Visual (picture smart) 7.​ Intrapersonal (self smart) 8.​ Naturalistic (nature smart) Abnormal Psychology Psychosis vs neurosis- definition Neurosis- a mental illness that interferes with normal life and often people use an excessive defence mechanism to justify the illness Examples: anxiety, mood swings, eating disorder Symptoms: chronic anxiety, emotional instability, obsessive thoughts/behaviours, headaches/stomach aches Psychosis- a mental state involving the loss of contact with reality, causing the deterioration of normal social functioning Examples: schizophrenia, bpd, manic depression Symptoms: changes in thinking patterns, delusions, hallucinations, very disorganized behaviour Agoraphobia -​ The fear of the marketplace -​ Fear of leaving home, public places, crowds or public transit -​ This fear often leads to avoidance behaviour Defence Mechanisms Denial: the refusal to accept reality and to act as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist Regression: is the revision to an earlier stage of development in the face of an unacceptable impulse Repression: removing traumatic experiences from our conscious memory Rationalization: the cognitive reframing of one's perceptions to protect the ego in the fear of changing realities Fantasy: the channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination Collective Behaviour -​ Affects you because of who you’re associated with, example: if your friends vape, you vape Mental Illness Definition -​ A condition that affects a person's thinking, feeling, behaviour or mood What is a stigma? -​ Refers to the negative attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that society holds towards individuals based on certain characteristics such as mental illness, disability or other conditions leading to discrimination and social exclusion Unit 3: Sociology Sociology: the study of human social relationships and institutions Socialization -​ Refers to the general process of acquiring culture Social Agents/Institutions -​ Refer to the various entities that influence individual behaviour and societal norms (family, schools, religion) Sociologists Max Weber -​ Argued that religion, education, politics and family could have as much of an influence in molding people's values as economics -​ He recognized middle class -​ Did not believe revolution was necessary to bring our change Karl Marx -​ Said that division between classes (rich and poor) is all about class conflict Auguste Comte -​ Invented term sociology -​ Positivism (application of scientific method to find truth) -​ Societies have natural tendency of finding balance Emile Durkheim -​ Focused on the criminal justice system, criminals should be reformed -​ Why people feel annihilated in society -​ Focussed on suicide Talcott Parsons -​ People are free to make own decisions but more motivated by desire to fit in society -​ Not explaining the disorder and change that exists in society Child Isolates- Effects on improper socialization Child isolates, individuals deprived of normal social interaction during development stages experience improper socialization, including delayed language, poor emotional development, difficulty forming relationships and struggles with understanding societal norms Example: Genie Wiley and Danielle, both children were subjected to extreme environments that stunted their social and emotional growth. Genie’s isolation was primarily due to her fathers severe abuse and the family's refusal of interaction with her. Danielles situation stemmed from her mothers inability to care for her. The environments characterized by a lack of nurturing and stimulation, led to delays in language acquisition and social skills, reflecting the severity of the neglect they experienced. Stereotypes -​ Generalized beliefs about groups of people that create biases (gender roles) Racism -​ Discrimination rooted in the superiority of one race over another often reinforced by stereotypes Nature vs Nurture Nature: genetic and biological factors that shape an individual Nurture: environmental factors such as culture and personal experiences