Stanley College Of Engineering And Technology For Women (A) Syllabus PDF

STANLEY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN (A) (Affiliated to Osmania University) (Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade, Accredited by NBA) Chapel Road, Abids, Hyderabad-500001...

STANLEY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN (A) (Affiliated to Osmania University) (Accredited by NAAC with “A” Grade, Accredited by NBA) Chapel Road, Abids, Hyderabad-500001 SYLLABUS UNIT - I The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies: Definition, Scope, and Importance, need for Public Awareness. Natural Resources: Water resources: Use and over- utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams: benefits and problems. Food resources: World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer and pesticide problems, water logging, salinity. Forest resources: Use and over – exploitation, deforestation, timber extraction, mining, dams and other effects on forest and tribal people. Land resources: Land degradation, environmental effect of mining, man induced landslides, soil erosion and desertification. Energy resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non-renewable energy resources. renewable and non-renewable energy sources. UNIT - II Ecosystem: Ecosystems: Concept of an ecosystem, Structure and function of an ecosystem, Producers, consumers and decomposers, Energy flow in ecosystem, food chains, ecological pyramids, ecological succession, types of ecosystems (marine, pond, river, forest, grassland, desert). UNIT - III Biodiversity: Levels of Biodiversity, Bio-geographical classification of India, Value of biodiversity, Threats to biodiversity, endangered and endemic species of India, Conservation of biodiversity, global and national efforts. UNIT - IV Environmental Pollution: Definition, Causes, effects and control measures of air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution, thermal pollution, solid waste management. Environment Protection Act: Air, water, forest and wildlife Acts, issues in the enforcement of environmental legislation. UNIT - V Social Issues and the Environment: Watershed management and environmental ethics. Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion. Environmental Disaster Management. Types of disasters, impact of disasters on environment, infrastructure, and development. Basic principles of disaster mitigation, disaster management, and methodology. Disaster management cycle and disaster management in India.  NOTES Unit-I Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering. Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships, perceptions, and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality. Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Definition: Environmental engineering is the application of engineering principles to protect the environment, public health, and safety from harmful effects of human activity. And Environment is derived from the French word “Environner” which means to encircle of surround. All biological and non-biological entities surrounded us are include in environment. It involves designing, constructing, and operating systems to control and mitigate environmental pollution, conserve natural resources, and promote sustainability. Scope:  Air, Water, Noise, and Soil Pollution Control.  Waste Management and Recycling.   Environmental Monitoring and Assessment  Sustainable Energy and Resource Management  Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation  Environmental Restoration and Remediation  Green Infrastructure and Urban Planning  Environmental Policy and Management  Social issues in relation and Human Population Objectives:  Protect Human Health Prevent or minimize exposure to harmful pollutants and toxins.  Conserve Natural Resources Develop Sustainable solutions to manage Water, Energy and Land resources  Preserve Ecosystems Protect and restore Natural habitats, Biodiversity and Ecosystem services  Mitigate Climate Change Reduce Greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change impacts  Promote Sustainability Develop and implement Sustainable Technologies, Policies, and Practices  Educate and Raise Awareness Inform & Engage communities, Stakeholders, Decision makers about Environment Issues & Solutions  Develop and Enforce Regulations Establish & Implement Environmental Laws, Policies and Standards Components of Environment: Environment has been classified into four major components: 1. Hydrosphere, 2. Lithosphere, 3. Atmosphere, 4. Biosphere. Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and ocean etc. Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle. Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided into three layers crusts, mantle, and core (outer and inner). Atmosphere the cover of the air, that envelope the earth is known as the atmosphere. Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. These include the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere. Biosphere it is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals, and micro- organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops, and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity, and availability. Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the material available and the demand for it. a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely. These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore not likely to be lost due to excessive and unwise use. b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include metallic minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may lose for less than a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20 years. Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all these human uses require fresh water. Distribution of water on earth: Earth’s water is distributed across various sources. About 97.5% of it is in the oceans as saltwater, which is not suitable for drinking or most agricultural uses without desalination. The remaining 2.5% is freshwater, crucial for human consumption, but its availability is uneven. Glaciers and ice caps store 68.7% of the freshwater, mostly in Antarctica and Greenland. Groundwater makes up 30.1%, stored beneath the Earth’s surface and used for drinking and irrigation. Only 1.2% is surface water (in lakes, rivers, etc.), the most easily accessible form of freshwater. A small fraction is also present in the atmosphere and within living organisms, playing a key role in weather and ecosystems. Managing this limited freshwater supply is vital for life and sustainability. Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms: 1. Ground water and 2. Surface water Groundwater: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied. Uses Of Water:  Domestic Use: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing, washing Clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day  Industrial Use: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining, textile, leather industries.  Public Use: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks, Flushing streets, jails etc.  Fire Use: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.  Irrigation: To grow crops which is the main sources for food.  Other Uses: Hydroelectric power generation requires water. Over Utilization of Ground Water and Surface Water: Over use of groundwater has following effects. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking, irrigation and Domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground water in various regions leading to lowering of water table & drying of wells. The reasons for shortage of water are: a. Increase in population, b. Increasing demand of water for various purposes. c. Unequal distribution of fresh water. d. Increasing pollution of water sources cause over exploitation. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is called ground subsidence which may cause damage of buildings, destroy water supply systems etc. Floods: A flood is a rapid as well as slow onset hazard. India is highly vulnerable to floods. As per Rastriya Barh Ayog (RBA) out of the total geographical area of 329 mha, around 12% of land in India (more than 40 mha) is flood prone affected area. Floods are a recurrent phenomenon, which cause huge loss of lives and damage to livelihood systems, property, infrastructure, and public utilities. It is a cause for concern that flood related damages show an increasing trend. Floods and droughts on one hand are cumulative hazards. On the other hand, due to the peculiar nature of the Indian monsoon floods and droughts may affect different pockets of the country at the same time of a year. Thus, floods can be seasonal, and sometimes flash floods also occur. Types of floods: Coastal floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide. Flash floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path. River floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snow melt or powerful storms. Pluvial floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. These types of floods are the event of rural areas. Urban floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater, it creates urban floods. Causes of floods: Unlike other natural disasters, the causes of floods are well established. They are relatively slow in occurrences and often occur in well-identified regions and within expected time in a year. There are many causes of floods. Some of the important causes of floods are. Natural causes and Man-made/ Anthropogenic cause. 1. Natural causes: Heavy rainfall and cloud bursts  Heavy concentrated rainfall reduces the capacity of rivers to accept any more surface run-offs due to rainfall and as result water spills over which yield very heavy rains (>50-100 cm within few hours).  All of these can cause extensive damage within short span of time.  Heavy melting of ice and snow  Changes in river systems and large catchment areas  Sediment deposition/silting of river beds   The collapse of dams,  Transgression of sea at the occasion of tropical cyclone  Tsunami in coastal areas and landslides in course of rivers. 2. Man-made/ Anthropogenic causes: Unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in the genesis as well as spread of floods. Deforestation: It leads to soil erosion and Landslides. It is responsible for the loss of vegetation and soils which holds down the soil that acts as a sponge and absorbs most of the water when it rains. It also leads to silting of river beds. Unscientific use of land utilization and bad farming practices: Some farmers have caused soil and water to flush into the rivers by leaving fields bare. Even choosing the wrong direction to plough in can cause floods. Increased Urbanization: It has reduced the ability of the land to absorb rainfall through the introduction of hard impermeable surfaces. This results in an increase in the volume and rate of surface run-off as less water infiltrates into the ground. Pro-active flood mitigation Mitigation measure during Post-active flood mitigation measures the flood measures 1. Avoid building in flood 1. Listen to the radio or 1. Rescue operations. prone areas unless you elevate television for information. 2. Speedy restoration of the and reinforce your home. 2. Be aware that flash flooding transport system. 2. Elevate the furnace, water can occur. If there is any 3. Supply of safe drinking heater, and electric panel if possibility of a flash flood, water. susceptible to flooding. move immediately to higher 4. Repair of power, telephone, 3. Install “Check Valves" in ground. Do not wait for & sewerage lines. sewer traps to prevent instructions to move. 5. Supply of food, shelter, and floodwater from backing up 3. Be aware of streams, clothing. into the drains of your home. drainage channels, canyons, 6. Survey to assess the loss 4. Contact community and other areas known to and compensation. officials to find out if they are flood suddenly. Flash floods 7. Rehabilitation of properties. planning to construct barriers can occur in these areas with 8. Desilting and dewatering of (levees, beams and or without such typical inundated areas. floodwalls) to stop floodwater warning as rain clouds or 9. Contingency plan for the from entering the homes in heavy rain agriculture sector. your area. 5. Seal the walls in your basement with waterproofing compounds to avoid seepage. FLOOD DISTRIBUTIONS OF INDIA: State-wise study shows that about 27% of the flood damage in the country is in Bihar, 33% in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and 15% by Punjab and Haryana. The major flood areas in India are in the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna basin, which accounts for nearly 60% of the total river flow of the country. Brahmaputra river region Ganga river region North-West river region  Central and Deccan India The middle and lower courses of North Indian rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Kosi, Damodar, Mahanadi, etc. Are prone to floods due to very low gradient. The flat plains do not have enough gradients for the outlet of drainage. Peninsular rivers are mature and have hard rock beds, so they have shallow basins This makes them prone to flooding. Parts of the Eastern coasts of India are particularly prone to cyclones during October-November. These cyclones are accompanied by strong winds, storm surges, tidal waves, and torrential rains. DROUGHT: Variability of rainfall leading to rainfall deficiency and water shortage causes drought. A drought is slow onset hazard as well as meteorological hazard. Erratic nature of monsoon (South-West monsoon), with long dry spells and high temperature, is mainly responsible for drought. Drought is a negative balance between precipitation and water use (through evaporation, transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc). In India, almost 3/4th of annual rainfall is received during South-West monsoon period (June-September). DROUGHT PRONE AREAS: In India, around 68% of the country is prone to drought to varying degrees. The 35% area which receives rainfall between 750mm and 1125 mm is considered drought-prone while 33% receiving less than 750mm is chronically drought-prone area. TYPES OF DROUGHTS: The Agricultural Commission of India has classified drought condition into four types based on its nature. They are; 1. Meteorological Drought: It is a situation where there is a reduction in rainfall specific period below a specific amount. 2. Hydrological Drought: It is associated with reduction of water. 3. Agricultural Drought: It is also called “Soil Moisture Drought”. When soil moisture and rainfall conditions are not adequate to support the crops, thereby resulting in crop failures. 4. Ecological Drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water and because of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem. 5. Socioeconomic Drought: related to demand and supply of economic goods. Consequence of droughts: The direct impact of the drought is generally classified under three categories, viz, social, economic, and environmental. The relative and absolute magnitudes of each impact will however depend on specific regional characteristics. Economic losses: It includes a decline in cultivated areas and a fall in agricultural production, which leads to the slowing down of secondary and tertiary activities. Environmental Impact: It leads to damages to plant and animal species, wildlife habitat, air and water quality, forest and range fires, degradation of landscape quality, and soil erosion. Soil moisture, surface run-off, and groundwater table get adversely affected. Impact on society: Migration of people from drought-hit areas to other areas in search of livelihood and food. Farmers tend to commit suicide. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are the states having maximum farmer suicides. Disruption of social institutions and increase in social crimes. Scarcity of drinking water, food grains and hence causes famine and starvation.  Poor health and spread of diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and other diseases associated with malnutrition, a hunger which sometimes causes death. Conflicts Over Water: Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access to water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private. A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in conflicts that start for other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage. These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international boundaries. However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources are necessary, yet limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of need for potable water. As freshwater is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its availability often impacts the living and economic conditions of a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water desalination techniques in areas like the Middle East, among other elements of water crises can put severe pressures on all water users According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is a vital element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water. Unfortunately, it is not a renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with climate change Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far beyond the amount of water available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict. The Cauvery water dispute: Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states. In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which badly seem to resolve. The Cauvery River water is a born of contention between Tamilnadu and Karnataka and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamilnadu occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river as upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states having increasing demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than Karnataka where the catchment area is rockier. On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water dispute tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCs of water was made available in Tamilnadus Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute as there was good stock of water in Mettur, but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee was set up to look into the matter which found there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as some measures to solve the problem. DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS: A dam is a man-made structure that is designed to hold back water in a river or other waterway, creating a reservoir or lake behind it. As of July 2019, India had 5,334 large dams, with 447 more under construction. India is third in the world for the number of dams, after China and the United States. The basic design of a dam typically consists of a large, solid wall of concrete, masonry, or earth that is built across a river or stream channel. The wall is designed to withstand the weight of the water behind it and the force of the water pushing against it. The wall is usually built with a sloping face on the upstream side and a vertical or sloping face on the downstream side. Dams are typically constructed for a variety of purposes, including Water supply Water storage Irrigation (Agricultural) Hydroelectric power generation Flood control Recreation BENEFITS: Water storage: dams provide a reliable source of water for irrigation, municipal and industrial use, and hydroelectric power generation. Flood control: dams can help to regulate the flow of water in rivers and prevent flooding during periods of heavy rainfall. Hydroelectric power: dams can generate electricity through the use of turbines that are powered by the force of falling water. Recreation: dams and reservoirs can provide opportunities for fishing, boating, and other recreational activities. Navigation: dams can help to maintain water levels in rivers and support commercial navigation PROBLEMS: 1. Environmental impacts: Dams have altered the natural flow of rivers and impacted downstream ecosystems, including the loss of fish populations and changes in water quality. 2. Socio-economic impacts: Dams have often benefitted large-scale irrigation and industrial projects at the expense of small farmers and rural communities. 3. Ecological impacts: Dams can alter the natural flow of rivers, which can have negative impacts on river ecosystems and the species that depend on them. 4. Social impacts: Dams can displace people who live in the areas that are flooded by the reservoir, and can also impact the cultural and spiritual practices of indigenous communities. 5. Sedimentation: Dams can trap sediment that is carried downstream by rivers, which can impact downstream ecosystems and infrastructure. 6. Water quality: Dams can impact water quality by altering the temperature and chemistry of water downstream of the dam. 7. Safety risks: Dams can pose risks to public safety if they are poorly designed, constructed, or maintained. Dam failures can result in catastrophic flooding and loss of life. 8. Displacement of communities: Many dams in India have displaced indigenous communities and farmers who depend on the land and water resources that are flooded by the reservoir. Note: India has a long history of building dams for various purposes, some of the major dams in India include; Nagarjuna Sagar Dam: The largest masonry dam in the world is Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh. Tehri Dam: Located in Uttarakhand, Tehri dam is one of the tallest dams in India and provides hydroelectric power, irrigation, and drinking water to the surrounding areas. Sardar Sarovar Dam: Located on the Narmada River in Gujarat, Sardar Sarovar dam is one of the largest dams in India and provides irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectric power. Bhakra Dam: Located on the Sutlej River in Himachal Pradesh, Bhakra dam is one of the highest gravity dams in the world and provides hydroelectric power and irrigation. Hirakud Dam: Located on the Mahanadi River in Odisha, Hirakud dam is one of the longest dams in the world and provides irrigation and hydroelectric power. FOOD RESOURCES: The main sources of human food are plants and animals. Human beings consume almost all parts of plants in the form of cereals (wheat, barley, millet, rye, oats, maize, corn, rice etc.); pulses (peas, red grams, green grams); vegetables (carrot, cauliflower, beans); fruits (banana, orange, grapes, pineapple) and spices (pepper, cloves). Also, several products such as milk, butter, egg and meat supplement the requirements. WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS: Since world’s population is growing every year and the demand of food is also increasing continuously. Although world’s food production has increased almost three times during the last 50 years, but at the same time rapid population growth outstripped the food production. So, the world food problem is a complex one depending on food production, population increase, the prevalence of poverty and environmental impacts. Famines are due to lack of access to food but not lack of food. Modern agriculture is largely based upon technological factors like the use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides etc. The Green revolution however changed traditional agricultural practices with a rapid increase in food production in developing countries. An American agricultural scientist, Norman Borlaug (father of green revolution) developed a high yielding variety of wheat through new concepts in plant breeding. By the mid 1960’s, the green revolution was fully adopted in India. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is known as "Indian Father of Green Revolution" for his leadership and success in introducing and further developing high- yielding varieties of wheat in India. CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE AND OVER GRAZING Changes Caused by Agriculture: There are two types of agricultural systems: (1) Traditional system and (2) Modern and Industrialized system 1. Traditional system: The traditional system is again subdivided into two types namely a. Traditional Subsistence Agriculture (TSA): In this system, only enough crops or livestock Are produced for the use of family and a little surplus to sell to meet the needs. b. Traditional Intensive Agriculture (TIA): Farmers increase their inputs of human labor, Water fertilizers to get higher yields for the use of their families and to sell small quantities for getting income. 2. Modern and industrialized system: In the system of modern and industrialized agriculture, a large extent of land will be brought under agriculture and huge quantities of fuel, energy, water, chemical fertilizers, pesticides used to produce large quantities of single crops purely for sale. This system is spreading in India in the name of green revolution. But this modern agricultural system has its own adverse effects on environment. A. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost up the crop yield, contaminate groundwater with nitrate. The presence of excess of nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human Health. Excess Nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and causes for “Blue Baby Syndrome” which kill the infants. B. The excessive N P K fertilizers in agriculture fields are often washed off with water and leads to algal blooming and Eutrophication. Phosphates have been accumulating in soils, lake sediments for decades change the ecology. Increased levels of phosphates in water bodies cause Eutrophication (growth of unwanted plants). C. The excessive use of pesticides enters the food chain and become hazardous to human life. D. A large area of fertile land has become saline in recent years due to excessive irrigation. E. Consumption of fuel energy is more when shifting of human and animal labour to agriculture machinery. Use of fuel leads to air pollution. F. Continuing to increase input of fertilizers, water and pesticides eventually produces no Additional increase in crop yield but slows down the productivity of the crop. G. Due to increased irrigation, the underground aquifers are slowly and constantly become dry. The rate at which they are being depleted is much faster than its recharge. H. Excessive application of chemical fertilizers can increase soil salt content. The percolation of domestic and industrial sewage also increases the salinity of soil. I. The stagnation of water in the soil in the upper layers causes for water logging which Causes for less oxygen availability for respiration of plants. Modern, intensive agriculture causes many problems, including the following: Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and pollute rivers, lakes, and Water courses. The prolonged use of artificial fertilizers results in soils with a low organic matter content Which is easily eroded by wind and rain? Dependency on fertilizers. Greater amounts are needed every year to produce the same Yields of crops. Artificial pesticides can stay in the soil for a long time and enter the food chain where they build up in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health problems. Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting in poor soil structure and aeration and decreasing nutrient availability.  Pests and diseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to artificial Pesticides. The numbers of natural enemies decrease because of pesticide use and habitat loss. WATER LOGGING: Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when the water table of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated activity, like agriculture. In agriculture, various crops need air (specifically, oxygen) to a greater or lesser depth in the soil. Water logging of the soil stops air getting in. How near the water table must be to the surface for the ground to be classed as waterlogged varies with the purpose in view. A crop's demand for freedom from water logging may vary between seasons of the year, as with the growing of rice (Oryza sativa). In irrigated agricultural land, water logging is often accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water. SALINITY: Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. Salinization can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also be caused by artificial processes such as irrigation. Salinization is a process that results from:  High levels of salt in the water.  Landscape features that allow salts to become mobile (movement of water table).  Climatic trends that favor accumulation.  Human activities such as land clearing, aquaculture activities and the salting of icy roads. CHANGES CAUSED BY OVER GRAZING: Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or native wild. Overgrazing reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of desertification and erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread of invasive species of non-native plants and of weeds. Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertility impair the land's future natural and agricultural productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the soil's water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather. FOREST RESOURCE Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since these are natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees, shrubs, woody vegetation etc. Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is covered by forests. Forests are important ecologically and economically. Ecologically forests are to be considered as earth’s lungs because they consume CO2 and release O2 which is required for sustaining the life on this earth. The poisonous gas CO2 is absorbed by the trees of forests and reduces the global warming and helps to continue hydrological cycle, reduce soil erosion. Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a good quantity of water. Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing animals, firewood (conventional fuel), bamboos, rubbers, medicines, gums, resins, food items etc. USES OF FOREST: Watershed protection: Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water. Prevent flash floods and soil erosion. Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought. Atmospheric regulation: Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration. Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth. Maintaining the local climatic conditions. Erosion control: Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away). Land bank: Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure. Local use: Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence (Consumptive use) Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest. (In the past when wildlife was Plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. Now those populations of most Wildlife species have diminished; continued hunting would lead to extinction.) Fodder - for cattle. Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating. Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas. Timber – household articles and construction. Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc. Sericulture – for silk. Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops. Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential Source for new modern drugs. Market use - (Productive use) Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as source of income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people. Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuel wood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc. which are Collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers. Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber extraction is done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues in many of the forests of India and the world. Over Exploitation of Forests: Forest has been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place to meet human demands in the following ways:  Due to wood cutting and large-scale logging for raw materials like timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc.  Deforestation due to road construction.  Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs of growing population.  Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 19.57 lakh hectares (2013) of forest in the country about 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing  Mining activities leads to clearing of forests.  Big hydroelectric projects result in large scale destruction of forest. In India, Joint Forest management has come up as innovative approach involving community participation so that the rural economy is strengthened as well as forest resources are conserved through public involvement. Deforestation and its effect on tribal people: Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre- agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface. Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover (or) the aimless destruction of trees. The clearing of forests across the earth has been occurring on a large-scale basis for many centuries. This process involves the cutting down, burning, and damaging of forests. Currently 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually and the current rate of deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the next 100 years about 80% of the original forests on the earth have already been cleared. MAJOR CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION: Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supported so clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice of North-East and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone has shouted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J & K. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc. Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into the grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads to further degradation of these lands. Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people. MAJOR ACTIVITIES AND THREATS TO FOREST RESOURCES:  Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and Mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other a by vines etc. Also, road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests. The steps in timber extraction are: a) Clear felling b) Mechanized logging c) Manual logging d) Selective logging  Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80000ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in part of India. DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE Forest are directly are indirectly affected by the forest. Hydro-electric dams are main cause for deforestation. About 40,000 large dams are currently obstructing Workloads Rivers. Destruction of forest occurs for constructing big dams, which alters ecological balance. In these way landslides, droughts and floods conditions may rise in area. Socio-economic problems related to tribal and native people results from big dam construction Dam construction produces several health hazards. Thousands of workers who build the dams attacked by the diseases like, measles, tuberculosis, syphilis etc. Dam building has resulted in wide range human rights violations. Rehabilitation policy of the government is important and typical when most of the displaced persons are tribal people. Tribal life and culture are mostly associated with forest. CASE STUDIES:  Chipko movement related to mining or quarrying opposed by Sundar Lal Bahuguna in North India. The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next five years spread to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttarakhand. The name of the movement comes from a word meaning 'embrace' the villagers hug  the trees, saving them by interposing their bodies between them and the contractors' axes. The Chipko protests in Uttarakhand achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling in the Himalayan forests of that state by order of India's then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Since then, the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in the North, Karnataka in the South, and Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyas in Central India. In addition to the 15-year ban in Uttarakhand, the movement has stopped clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas and generated pressure for a natural resource policy which is more sensitive to people's needs and ecological requirements.  Narmada Bachav Andolan Sardar Sarovar – Narmada project is a multipurpose project in Gujarat  In 2021, Uranium mining in the Nallamalla forest in Telangana, India has been the subject of controversy and opposition from environmental groups, conservationists, and NGOs.  In the recent issue on that Damagundam forest in Vikarabad, Telangana, is facing several issues due to the Indian Navy's proposed Very Low Frequency (VLF) radar station. LAND RESOURCES Land as a resource: Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands include different resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on. If land is utilized carefully, it can be considered a renewable resource. Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural resources. LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION: Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions or reduces its quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, heavy rains, fire etc., or human induced activities. The other causes of land degradation consist of wind blow, salinity of water, water logging, soil acidity, loss of flora and fauna. Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world. These dry lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1 billion people who are dependent on these lands for survival. Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity in forest areas urban conversion, bringing more land under cultivation, soil pollution, loss of organic matter in the soils, alkalinization of soils, salinity of water etc. leads to land degradation. Severe land degradation affects in decreasing the mineral wealth and economic development of nations. The methods that are followed for the prevention of land degradation are called soil conservation methods. Some of the popular methods are: (a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows (a long narrow cut in the Ground) and ridges at the same level. The water is caught and held in furrows and stores which reduces run off and erosion. (b) Mulching: Stems of maize, cotton, tobacco etc are used as a mulch (decay  of leaves) to reduce soil moisture, evaporation. (c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land becomes Unproductive. This is overcome by changing the crops and cultivating legumes (plants like peas, beans) after a regular crop. (d) Strip cropping: It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along contours to check flow of water. LANDSLIDES AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES: Landslides always exist on this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide variety of process that result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces. In other words, mass movement of rocks, debris, and soil down a slope of land. Landslides are primarily associated with steep slopes. Surface run-off and changes in drainage also cause for landslides. Landslides can also be initiated by rainfall; earthquakes; volcanic activity, changes in groundwater movement or any combination these factors. Debris-flows can travel down a hillside of speeds up to 200 miles per hour (more commonly, 30 – 50 miles per hour) depending on the slope angle, water content, and type of earth and debris in the flow. While landslides are a naturally occurring environmental hazard, they have recently increased in frequency in certain areas due to human activities. Building excavations collapses in mining (e.g.: coal mine) causes landslides. However, landslides can be triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment. Simply landslides can be explained in three ways: (a) Inherent of rocks (weakness in the structure of a rock) (b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and (c) Due to various environmental conditions. Soil Erosion and Causes for Soil Erosion: The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation, overgrazing, industrialization; desertification etc. a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc. causes deforestation and leads to exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads to deforestation which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils. b. Overgrazing: When enough grass is available for the organisms usually the entire land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without grass and ultimately the land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion. c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining operations cause soil pollution which leads to degradation of land DESERTIFICATION: Desertification is the process which turns productive into non- productive desert as a result of poor land-management. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less than 700 mm) bordering on deserts. CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION  Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi- arid areas are adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move in response to the patchy rainfall common to these regions.  Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e. lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and a very low economic return, for example, some parts of South Africa where maize is grown.  Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood.   Poor grazing management after accidental burning of semi-arid vegetation.  Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization.  Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor people may be forced to overuse their environment in the short term, without the ability to plan for the long-term effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social importance beyond food, people might be reluctant to reduce their stock numbers. when the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of desertification increases dramatically. EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION  Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life,  affecting wild species,  domestic animals,  agricultural crops and people.  soil erosion by wind and water. ENERGY RESOURCES Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work.  Energy is found on our planet in a variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while others require a process of transformation.  Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but transformed from one form to other.  Energy is closely related to force. When a force causes an object to move, energy is being transferred from the force to kinetic energy. Energy is present in a number of forms such as mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological energy etc. Energy production and utilization have become essential to carry out many activities in modern life. Energy is one of the important requirements that a country needs for its economic growth. At the same time, energy production has its impact on environment due to pollution and finally affects the quality of life of people. GROWING ENERGY NEEDS  Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial development of any country is dependent on the organized development of its power resources'.  Energy is also indispensable for agriculture, transport, business, and domestic requirements. In fact, electricity such has a wide range of applications in modern economic development that its per capita consumption is to a great extent, an index of the material advancement of the country.  Energy is measured in joules in SI units. The annual per capita energy consumption in developed countries ranges from 5 to 11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is between 1 to 1.5 KW. Uses of Energy: 1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation. 2. It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, tele-communications etc. 3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors. 4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles in supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of  energy and environment have assumed great significance. TYPES OF ENERGY There are three main types of energy; a. Non-renewable, b. Renewable, and c. nuclear energy a. Non – renewable energy resources: Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and turned into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by the geological processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum) and gases (natural gas).  Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earth’s crust and altered by geological process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source because it takes a very long period (millions of years) for its formation. Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse, ground water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc. cause diseases. CO2 pollution leads to greenhouse effect (global warming).  Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid. The crude oil is heated up to 600 oC in the oil refinery and condense the vapors of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum products are refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large quantities in the manufacture of detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber etc. The transport sector consumes about 40% of diesel; 25% industries and 19%household and rest 16% agriculture and other sectors..  Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means drilling holes into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is less and thus reducing greenhouse effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic mts of gas is estimated as proven reserves. b. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the earth).  Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can be used for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells convert direct solar energy into electricity. A number of solar equipment have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook food, to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting, railway signals etc. But the major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in less quantity than on sunny days.  Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which dams are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into electrical energy by generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems like destruction of animal habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc.  Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the temperature rises with depth. The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000oC. Geysers (a natural spring that emits hot water) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy where the steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by drilling. The obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of geothermal energy where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of the geothermal sources. The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).  Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average wind mills can convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady wind speed of 8.5mts / sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind and length of rotor blade. The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about 6000 MW is located in Tamil Nadu, 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan for balance quantity.  Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies. Seas absorb solar radiation and large amounts of solar energy are stored in the tides and waves of the ocean. Ocean energy is non – polluting in nature and suitable at a few places only. Energy from seas or oceans is obtained from the following:  Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of solar on the surface of the water while the temperature of deepwater is very low. Using this temperature difference, it is possible to convert heat into electricity.  Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate electricity. Asia’s first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up at Kandla in Gulf of Kutch.  Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is a renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural activities. The bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agriculture crops, house hold waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using bio-mass energy sources is to allow them to dry out in the sun and burn them.  Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from available natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant leaves, paddy husk etc. Bio-gas is a mixture of methane (68%), CO2 (31%) and N2 (1%). Methane gas (CH4) is produced by bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as cooking gas whose calorific value varies from 4400 – 6200 Kilo Calories / cum. Heat value of biogas can be improved by reducing its CO2 content. Bio-gas production is carried out in an enclosed bio-gas plant made of bricks or steel. Aslurry of waste organic matter is fed into the plant through an inlet and gas formed is tapped by an inverted drum. As gas is produced the drum rises and the gas may be drawn through an outlet. Bio-gas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a bio gas plant known as Gobar Gas plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel that can be used for lighting purpose, lifting water through small pumps. c. Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is non–renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain radioactive elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an enormous amount of energy from a small quantity of radioactive element. For examples: 1 kg of Uranium liberates energy equivalent to 30000 kgs of coal. Energy released during nuclear reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s formula E = mc2). Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear Fusion. Nuclear Fission: The nucleus in atoms is split by fast moving neutrons and in turn a tremendous amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc. is released by a chain of reactions. Uranium is used as fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is utilized to generate electricity or else released suddenly all at once, results a tremendous explosion as in the case of Atom bomb. Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which involves two hydrogen atoms combine to produce one helium atom. Example: Hydrogen bomb. The disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and reactor operation for a long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment. Disposable of nuclear waste is a national and global problem. CASE STUDIES  In July 7th, 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Challenger flew’ from Paris to England in 5 hours, 20minutes. It had 16,000 solar cells glued to the wings and tail of the plane and they produced enough power to drive a small electric motor and propeller. Since 1987, every three years there is a World Solar challenge for solar operated vehicles in Australia where the vehicles cover 3000 kms.  The world’s first solar-powered hospitals in Mali in Africa. Being situated at the edge of the Sahara Desert, Mali receives a large amount of sunlight. Panels of solar cells supply the power needed to run vital equipment and keep medical supplies cool in refrigerators.  In recent years, the popularity of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV’s) has grown considerably. In this application, PV devices are designed as part of building materials (i.e. roofs and siding) both to produce electricity and reduce costs by replacing the costs of normal construction materials. There are more than 3, 000 BIPV systems in Germany and Japan have a program that will build 70,000BIPV buildings. MINERAL RESOURCES A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product. The geological processes are caused for the formation of the minerals over millions of years ago in the earth’s crust. Minerals are generally localized in occurrence and the deposits are very sporadic in distribution. Mineral resources are non-renewable and the mineral /ore is extracted by the process of mining. Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use. Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Uses of minerals: Minerals are used in a large number of ways for domestic, industrial, commercial Sectors etc… 1. Generation of energy by using coal (lignite / anthracite); uranium, gold, silver, platinum, diamond are used in jewellery. Copper, aluminum etc are used as cables for transmission of power. 2. Some of the minerals are used in ayurvedam as medicine. Gold is reputed to strengthen the heart muscle and increase energy and stamina. Mining and its Process: Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior so that they can be used. This process is known as mining. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, lode, vein, (coal) seam or reef, which forms the mineralized horizon and package of economic interest to the miner. Mining operations generally progress through four stages: (1) Prospecting: Searching for minerals. (2) Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, location, (3) Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted from it. (4) Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines. TYPES OF MINING The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or mineral deposit is nearer the surface or deep within the earth. Mines are of two types a) Surface (open cut or strip mines) b) Deep or shaft mines. A).Surface Mining: Surface mining is used to obtain mineral ores that are close to Earth’s Surface. The soil and rocks over the ore are removed by blasting. Typically, the remaining ore is drilled or blasted so that large machines can fill trucks with the broken rocks. Surface mining includes open-pit mining, quarrying, and strip mining. 1) Open-pit mining creates a big pit from which the ore is mined. 2) Strip mines are similar to pit mines. 3) A quarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals. B). Underground Mining: Underground mining is used for ores that are deep in Earth's surface. For deep ore deposits, it can be too expensive to remove all of the rocks above the ore. Underground mines can be very deep. The deepest gold mine in South Africa is more than 3,700 meters deep (that is more than 2 miles). Underground mining is dangerous work. Environmental effects: Mineral extraction and processing in mines involves a negative impact on environment. Much risk is involved in mining process because of high temperature, pressure Variations, fire hazards and lack of ventilation in mines.  Mining process involves removal of over burden of soil, ore extraction & transportation, crushing & grinding of ore, water treatment of ore, storage of waste material. As a result of these activities cause air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution, loss of habitat of wildlife, concentration of toxic substances in tailing ponds and spreading of dust.  People working in mines often suffer from serious respiratory system and skin diseases.  Mining often causes ground subsidence which results in tilting of  buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks etc.  Exploration process before a mining involves, geochemical, geophysical surveys Drilling activities which causes for air pollution, noise pollution etc...  In addition, disturbance of all vegetation (flora) and fauna (animals) from that a region.  Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD): The outflow of acidic water from (usually abandoned) metal mines or coal mines. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts, we can together help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. Following are the ways. Conserve Water:  Don’t keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.  In washing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.  Install water saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.  Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.  Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways etc.  Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum. Never water the plants in mid-day.  Install a system to capture rain water. Conserve energy:  Turn off light’s fans and other appliances when not in use.  Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead of direr if possible.  Use solar cooker for cooking which will be more nutritious and will save your LPG Expenses.  Build your house with provision for sunspace which will keep your house warmer and will provide more light.  Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible. Share a car-pool if possible.  Control the use of A.C.  Recycle and reuse glass, metals and papers.  Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using vehicle. Protect the Soil:  Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden. Grow grass in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.  Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.  Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil.  Better use sprinkling irrigation. Promote Sustainable Agriculture:  Do not waste food; Take as much as you can eat.  Reduce the use of pesticides.  Fertilize your crop with organic fertilizers.  Use drip irrigation.  Eat local and seasonal vegetables and Control pest