Statistics And Probability (2025) PDF

Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY times. Since 𝑋 takes on different numerical Probability Distribution of Discrete Variables Grade Eleven I Angelo L, Loyola Senior High School values based on the outcome of a random event...

Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY times. Since 𝑋 takes on different numerical Probability Distribution of Discrete Variables Grade Eleven I Angelo L, Loyola Senior High School values based on the outcome of a random event (coin flips), it is classified as a random variable. A listing of all possible values of a discrete Random Variables and Probability Distribution random variable along with their corresponding Discrete and Continuous Variable probabilities is called a discrete probability A random variable is a variable whose distribution (probability mass function). The possible values are determined by chance. A discrete random variable: discrete probability distribution can be can only take a finite (countable) presented in tabular, graphical, or formula form. It is typically represented by an uppercase number of distinct values letter, usually X, while its corresponding distinct values mean values that are lowercase letter, x, is used to represent one of its exact and can be represented by values. nonnegative whole numbers. EXAMPLE: A coin is tossed thrice. Let the Example: variable X represent the number of heads that 1. Number of books in a bookshelf results from this experiment. 2. Number of players participated in a race 3. Number of students present in a class A continuous random variable: can assume an infinite number of values Characteristics in an interval between two specific 1. The probability of each value is between 0 and values 1: values that can be represented not only by nonnegative whole numbers but also 0 ≤ 𝑃 (𝑥) ≤ 1 by fractions and decimals values that are often resulting of In reference to the graph above, the following measurement. probabilities (0.25, 0.5, and 0.25) are between 0 and 1. Example: The value of the random variable 𝑋 represents 1. The time it takes sprinters to run 100 2. The sum of all the probabilities is 1. the number of times 'heads' appears in a given meters set of coin flips. In this case, 𝑋 can take the 2. The size of real estate lots in a city ∑ 𝑃 (𝑥) = 1 values 0, 1, 2, or 3, depending on how many 3. The weight of baby elephants times heads appears—whether it does not 4. The body temperature of patients with In reference to the graph above, the sum of the appear, appears alone, in pairs, or multiple the flu probabilities (0.25, 0.5, and 0.25) is 1. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Mean and Variance of Discrete Variable variable X represents the number of college (x – 𝝁)2 * x x-𝝁 (x – 𝝁)2 graduates in the households. The probability P(x) The mean of a discrete random variable X is also distribution of X is shown below: 0.25 * 1 = 0 0-1 = -1 1 called the expected value of X. It is the weighted 0.25 average of all the values that the random X 0 1 2 1 1-1 = 0 0 0.50 * 0 = 0 variable X would assume in the long run. P(x) 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.25 * 1 = 2 2-1 = 1 1 0.25 𝐸(𝑋) = ∑[𝑥 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] To find the mean, variance, and standard 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 deviation, follow these instructions: 1. For solving mean, make a table to 5. Now, to solve the standard deviation, Where: visualize the computation, a column for X = discrete random variable find the square root of the computed all the possible outcomes, the variance. x = outcome value or value of the random probability of each outcome, and their variable product. P(x) = probability of the outcome x 2. Multiply x by P(x) to get the value of x * 𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] P(x): Meanwhile, the variance of the discrete random 𝜎 = √0.50 variable X is denoted by 𝜎2. 𝜎 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏 x P(x) x * P(x) 0 0.25 0 𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] 1 0.50 0.50 2 0.25 0.50 Normal Distribution Where: x = outcome Mean: ∑[𝑥 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] = 𝟏 One of the most commonly observed continuous 𝜇 = population mean 3. Interpretation: The expected value is 1. random variables has a bell-shaped probability P(x) = probability of the outcome So, the average number of college distribution. It is known as a normal random graduates in the household of the small variable and its probability distribution is called The standard deviation of a discrete random town is 1. normal distribution. variable X is written 𝜎. It is the square root of the variance. 4. For variance, make a column for the possible outcome (x), difference of Properties: possible outcome and the mean, the 𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑥)] squared of the difference of possible 1. The normal distribution curve is bell- outcome and the mean, and the product shaped. of the squared of difference of possible 2. The mean, median, and mode are equal outcome and the mean and the and located at the center of the Example 1: A researcher surveyed the probability of x. distribution. households in a small town. The random Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 3. The curve is symmetrical about the A z score of zero means that your x value mean is equal to the mean. 60 − 75 𝑧= 4. The total area under the curve is 1 or 12 100%. For population: 5. The curve is asymptotic to the x-axis. 𝑧 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑥− 𝜇 𝑧= 𝜎 Step 2: Find the P-value Where: To find the probability of your sample mean z x = raw score/observed value score of -1.25 or less occurring, you use the z 𝜇 = population mean table to find the value at the intersection of row 𝜎 = population standard deviation -1.2 and column 0.05. For sample: 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 𝑧= 𝑠 Where: 𝑥̅ = sample means s = standard deviation Standard Normal Distribution Example 1: On the final examination in Biology, the mean was 75 and the standard deviation It is a special normal distribution whose mean was 12. Determine the standard score of a 𝜇 = 0 and the standard deviation 𝝈 = 1. student who received a score of 60 assuming that the scores are normally distributed. The random variable itself is called standard normal random variable and is commonly Follow these steps: denoted as z. Step 1: Calculate the z-score: The z-scores are values given to indicate the First, input the values in the given formula. In areas under the normal curve. this case, we can use the z-scores formula to get A positive z score means that your x the area. value is greater than the mean. A negative z score means that your x 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ value is less than the mean. 𝑧= 𝑠 Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) The table tells you that the area under the curve Sampling Techniques up to or below your z score is 0.1056 (10.56%). Probability Sampling To determine if a z-value is shaded to the left, right, or in between on a normal distribution 1. Simple Random Sampling is a sampling curve, look at the sign of the z-score: technique in which every element of the a positive z-score indicates the shaded population has the same probability of being area is to the right of the mean selected for inclusion in the sample. a negative z-score means the shaded area is to the left of the mean if you need to shade an area "in between" two values, you'll shade the region between the corresponding z- scores on the curve. 3. Stratified Random Sampling is a sampling technique in which the population is first divided into strata and then samples are shaded randomly selected separately from each stratum. region: 0.1056 or 10.56% 39 51 63 75 87 99 111 2. Systematic Random Sampling is a sampling technique in which every nth element of the population is selected until the desired number of elements in the sample is obtained. The value of n is calculated by dividing the number of 1. Since, the standard deviation is 12, then elements in the population by the number of we can say that the distance of values to elements in the desired sample. the mean and the corresponding values is 12. 2. Now, since the z-scores is negative then the graph should start from 60 to the left. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 4. Cluster or Area Sampling is a random sampling technique in which the entire population in broken into small groups, or clusters, and then, some of the clusters are randomly selected. The data from the randomly selected clusters are the ones that are analyzed. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) PRACTICAL RESEARCH exploring to formulate a researchable question and identifying potential solutions that are Grade Eleven I Angelo L. Loyola Senior High School about the relationship between social media use culturally appropriate and economically feasible. and exam scores. C) By immediately implementing popular diet Practice Test trends from urban areas without considering Disclaime: These questions are designed to 2. (SOLO) A student, Maria, is learning about the local resources and preferences. apply concepts to situation-based scenarios. nature of inquiry in her Practical Research 1 D) By ignoring the problem and hoping it They are formulated solely based on the class. What does inquiry primarily involve when resolves itself as more fast-food chains open in provided information and references. applied to learning? the area. 1. (PISA-Type) A group of senior high school A) Passively accepting information presented Explanation: Research is crucial for students in the STEM strand are assigned to by the teacher without question. understanding the causes of problems in understand the impact of limiting social media B) Actively seeking truth, information, or specific contexts to find effective solutions, use to 1 hour a day on teenagers' study habits, knowledge through questioning and moving beyond general beliefs or guesses. specifically on their science exam scores. They investigation. start by tracking their classmates' social media C) Memorizing facts and formulas to pass 4. (SOLO) A student, John, is preparing a usage through a phone app and correlating this exams. presentation about the importance of research with their science exam results. What is the D) Ignoring new information that contradicts for his science class. What are three ways that primary purpose of the students' initial data existing beliefs. research can improve the standard of living for collection in this situation, according to the people in developing countries? principles of inquiry? Explanation: It is stated that inquiry involves "seeking for truth, information or knowledge" A) Relying on foreign aid, following traditional A) To gather data to prove a pre-existing theory and that this is done "through questioning." practices, and maintaining the status quo. about social media being universally bad. B) Leading to new inventions, discoveries, and B) To seek initial information and explore the 3. (PISA-Type) A local community in a rural area advancements in health, such as vaccines and relationship between social media use and is facing an increase in childhood obesity due to disease prevention methods. science exam performance. limited access to fresh fruits and vegetables and C) Ignoring problems, avoiding data collection, C) To quickly determine if social media is the increased consumption of processed foods. How and reinforcing existing beliefs. sole cause of low exam scores and stop further can research most effectively contribute to D) Depending on luck, fate, and superstition. investigation. addressing this problem? D) To discourage social media usage among Explanation: As stated, new inventions, classmates by immediately labeling it as A) By reinforcing existing beliefs about the discoveries, and advancements in health has harmful. benefits of traditional diets, even if they are not improved life expectancy and helped in curing a accessible to everyone. lot of diseases. Explanation: Inquiry begins with gathering B) By gathering data to understand the specific information and data to explore a topic, as causes of childhood obesity in the community stated in the document. The students are Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 5. (PISA-Type) A researcher conducts an What is the most important initial factor the What is the most important ethical experiment on plant growth, carefully student should consider when selecting a consideration for the researcher in this measuring sunlight exposure, watering, and research problem? situation? fertilizer use. Which characteristic of research is most clearly demonstrated in this situation? A) The topic's popularity among her classmates A) Obtaining informed consent from the and social media trends. teenagers and their parents or guardians, A) Cyclical B) The availability of funding for the research ensuring they understand the purpose of the B) Original from external sources. study, potential risks, and their right to withdraw C) Empirical C) The student’s area of interest and passion for at any time. D) Critical the topic. B) Sharing the survey results with the D) The topic's complexity and difficulty, aiming teenagers' school administration to address the Explanation: Empirical research is based on for the most challenging project possible. cyberbullying issue. observations and experimentation, which C) Encouraging the teenagers to answer all involves measuring variables. Explanation: One of the factors to consider in questions, even if they are uncomfortable or selecting a research problem is the researcher's triggered by the content. 6. (SOLO) A researcher says their study is area of interest. D) Using the teenagers' names and social media "logical." What is one thing you can assume profiles in the research report to increase the about the researcher's study based on this 8. (SOLO) A student is learning about the credibility of the findings. description? research process. How can the student best describe to their family what the relationship is Explanation: When conducting research on A) The study is probably difficult to understand between each step of the research process? human subjects, it is important to respect their and requires advanced knowledge. rights to privacy and dignity, and protect them B) The study follows orderly and sequential A) The steps have nothing to do with each other from personal harm. procedures based on valid procedures and B) All of the steps happen at the same time principles. C) Each step in the research process relates to 10. (SOLO) A student is working on a research C) The study involved guesswork and intuition the next project and considering the ethical implications rather than systematic methods. D) Only the first two steps matter of their work. What is the best overall approach D) The study involved making things up. for researchers to take to avoid unethical Explanation: There are several steps, and each of practices in their work, according to the Explanation: One of the characteristics of those steps relates to the next step. provided document? research is that it be logical, which means that it follows "orderly and sequential procedures 9. (PISA-Type) A researcher is conducting a A) Making researchers sign a code of ethics and based on valid procedures and principles." survey on sensitive personal topics with a group hoping they follow it. 7. (PISA-Type) A student, Sarah, is struggling to of teenagers who are victims of cyberbullying. B) Monitoring researchers' activities at all times choose a research topic for her science project. to catch any potential violations. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) C) Designing research to produce favorable 12. (SOLO) A student is learning about 14. (SOLO) A student is tasked with outcomes, regardless of the validity of the qualitative and quantitative research in their remembering the rights of research methods. research methods class. What is something participants. Which of the following is a right D) All of the above qualitative research primarily associated with? that the participant holds? Explanation: To be ethical, a research project A) Hard data and numerical analysis A) Human Rights needs to be designed to create valid outcomes if B) Quantifying problems with mathematical B) Intellectual Property it is believed to be pursuing truth. models and statistical analysis C) Voluntary Participation C) Exploring phenomena, understanding D) All of the above 11. (PISA-Type) A researcher wants to experiences, and gaining in-depth insights understand the experiences of refugees D) Generating mathematical data for statistical Explanation: They constitute a set of rights and adjusting to a new country, focusing on their analysis duties necessary for the protection of human cultural adaptation process and mental well- dignity, inherent to all human being being. Which research approach is most Explanation: Quantitative data quantifies appropriate for this situation? attitudes and opinions, which means qualitative 15. (PISA-Type) A local government wants to is not primarily associated with hard data. implement a new recycling program but needs A) Quantitative research, using standardized to understand community attitudes towards questionnaires to measure integration levels 13. (PISA-Type) A student wants to investigate recycling and identify potential barriers to and mental health symptoms. whether a new study method improves exam participation. Which research method would B) Qualitative research, conducting in-depth scores. What would be the most effective first provide the most useful insights for designing interviews to explore their lived experiences, step in this research process? the program effectively? challenges, and coping mechanisms in their own words. A) Immediately implementing the new study A) Analyzing census data to determine the C) A combination of both, using surveys to method across all classes in the school. demographic makeup of the community. gather demographic data and interviews to B) Defining the research question and identifying B) Conducting a survey to measure residents' understand personal stories. relevant variables. willingness to participate in recycling and D) Neither, as the topic is too sensitive for C) Asking friends for their opinions on the study identify factors that influence their recycling research and should be left to social workers method. behavior. and policymakers. D) Assuming the method will work and skipping C) Holding town hall meetings to discuss the the research. program with residents and gather anecdotal Explanation: Qualitative research is used to feedback. explore complex situations and get the lived-in Explanation: A key step is defining the research D) Reviewing existing literature on successful experiences of individuals. problem, including identifying the variables recycling programs in other cities. involved. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Explanation: A survey would collect data on attitudes on the stated program. Explanation: It's important to look at potential 20. (SOLO) A student is looking at the rights of biases, methods, and sample sizes. human subjects in research. The student states 16. (SOLO) A researcher is deciding whether that one of the rights of human subjects is the qualitative or quantitative data is more 18. (SOLO) A student needs to choose between right to privacy. What does it mean for human important for a project. What is the best way to quantitative research and qualitative research subjects to have the right to privacy in a determine that? for their research project. Which type of research context? research is often associated with hard data and A) Qualitative data is more important because it numerical analysis? A) The researcher has the right to listen to every provides rich, descriptive insights. word someone says during the study. B) Quantitative data is more important because A) Quantitative Research B) There's nothing a research subject can do to it is objective and generalizable. B) Qualitative Research keep private if they are being studied. C) Both qualitative and quantitative data can be C) The subject has the right to keep his personal important, depending on the research question Explanation: The first thing that the document matters and relationships secret and to control and goals. The choice depends on what the states about quantitative research is that it is the extent to which their personal information is researcher wants to understand and how they "more often associated with hard data" shared. plan to use the findings. D) Privacy doesn't exist in the modern world, so D) Neither qualitative nor quantitative data 19. (PISA-Type) A researcher accidentally it doesn't matter. matters because research is subjective and deletes some data analysis that affects the unreliable. results of their study. What is the most ethical Explanation: The definition of privacy is thing for the researcher to do? someone’s right to keep his personal matters 17. (PISA-Type) A study claims that drinking a and relationships secret. specific type of juice significantly improves A) Ignore the mistake and hope no one notices memory in older adults with early signs of it. 21. (PISA-Type) A school wants to understand dementia. What questions should you ask to B) Correct the mistake and report the corrected why students are not participating in critically evaluate the validity of this claim? results, even if it means retracting a previously extracurricular activities. Which research published paper. approach would be most effective for gaining a A) Was the study funded by the juice company, C) Blame the mistake on a research assistant. deep understanding of the students' and were there any conflicts of interest? D) Adjust the other data to compensate for the motivations and barriers? B) Was the study conducted with a large and mistake. diverse sample group of older adults? A) Conducting a quantitative survey to measure C) Were there any control groups used in the Explanation: The point of integrity is to be the number of students participating in each study, and was the study design rigorous and honest with results, to not falsify data and to be activity and calculate participation rates. well-controlled? able to report results even if it means retracting B) Conducting qualitative interviews and focus D) All of the above a previously published paper. groups to explore the reasons why students are Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) not participating, their perceptions of D) Blaming residents for littering and D) It increases the validity of the findings extracurriculars, and any barriers they face. implementing punitive measures without because only the most motivated people C) Reviewing existing literature on understanding the underlying causes. responded. extracurricular participation rates and identifying demographic trends. Explanation: Before acting, gather information Explanation: If there is a low response rate, it D) Making assumptions about why students are and data through questioning, and begin with will limit the validity of the study's findings. not participating based on the experiences of a problem few teachers and administrators. 26. (SOLO) A researcher needs to publish their 24. (SOLO) A researcher wants to study the findings to contribute to the scientific 22. (SOLO) A researcher is beginning a project effects of a new teaching method on student community. Is responsible publication and considering the ethical implications of their performance but does not have enough time to important for advancing research and work. What is the most important thing to do for obtain informed consent from all students. scholarship? good research? What is the most important thing a researcher should do in this situation? A) no A) Be honest B) yes B) Be dishonest A) Consider ethics C) Be creative B) Disregard ethics Explanation: In responsible publication, you D) Tell lies C) Focus only on time publish to advance research and scholarship D) Focus only on the results 27. (PISA-Type) A researcher wants to conduct 23. (PISA-Type) A community group wants to 25. (PISA-Type) A researcher conducts a survey a study on a topic that has been extensively reduce litter in their neighborhood. What would and receives a low response rate. How does this researched. What can the researcher do to be the most logical first step in addressing this low response rate affect the validity of the ensure that their study makes a meaningful problem using the research process? study's findings? contribution to the existing body of knowledge? A) Organizing a community cleanup day to A) It has no effect on the validity of the findings A) Replicate a previous study without any remove existing litter and beautify the because the researcher can still analyze the data changes to confirm the findings. neighborhood. they received. B) Focus on a new aspect of the topic, explore a B) Conducting a survey to understand the B) It may limit the generalizability of the findings different population, or use a novel methodology. sources of litter, community attitudes towards it, to the larger population because the respondents C) Ignore the existing research and start from and potential solutions. may not be representative. scratch to avoid being influenced by previous C) Installing more trash cans throughout the C) It automatically invalidates the study, and the findings. neighborhood without understanding why researcher should discard the data and start D) Simply summarize the existing research people litter in the first place. over. without adding any new insights or perspectives. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Explanation: Plagiarism refers to the act of using Explanation: Research is supposed to be original another person’s ideas, works, processes, and work, and also novel. results without giving due credit 28. (SOLO) A student needs to name reasons 30. (SOLO) A student wants to know how that a group would do research. What are some copyright infringement might affect them. of the reasons why research is significant and Which of the following is an example of important? copyright infringement? A) To gather necessary information A) Downloading movies and music without B) To improve the standard of living proper payment for use. C) To have a safer life B) Recording movies in a theatre D) All of the above C) Using others’ photographs for a blog without permission Explanation: To gather necessary information, D) All of the above improve the standard of living, and have a safer life Explanation: Each of those examples is using other people's property without giving credit 29. (PISA-Type) A student is writing a research (violating economic and moral rights of the paper and finds a passage in a book that author), meaning copyright infringement. perfectly expresses their idea. What is the correct way to use this passage in their paper? A) Copy the passage verbatim without any citation to make the paper sound more professional. B) Copy the passage verbatim and cite the source in a footnote or bibliography to give credit to the original author. C) Paraphrase the passage in their own words and cite the source to demonstrate understanding and avoid plagiarism. D) Both B and C Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, 1. Social and Cultural Background 2.4. Elections - formal decision-making 1.1. Gender- is the range of characteristics process by which a population chooses SOCIETY, AND POLITICS pertaining to, and differentiating an individual to hold public office Grade Eleven I Angelo L, Loyola Senior High School between, masculinity and femininity. 1.2. Socioeconomic status (SES) is an Social, Political and Cultural Change Nature, Goals, and Perspectives in Anthropology, economic and sociological combined Sociology, and Political Science total measure of a person's work Social change experience and of an individual's or Refers to transformations that alter the Anthropology family's economic and social position in roles and status of people as well as the came from the word ‘anthropos’ or man. relation to others, based on income, structure and organization of society study of man education and occupation. and its institutions. developed in European Colonization 1.3. Ethnicity- refers to cultural traits that (they conducted research on “primitive are shared by a category of people such Political change societies”) as language, religion, or national origin. Occurs when there is an alteration in the Francis Boas – considered as the father 1.4. Religion- is a “unified system of beliefs way power and authority are exercised of the modern primitive anthropology. and practices related to sacred things. in a particular state. 1.5. Identity- refers to distinctive What does it mean to be human? characteristics that define an individual ANTHROPOLOGY Who are you? or are shared by those belonging to a Where did you came from? particular group. Social Anthropology studies how social patterns and practices and Sociology 2. Social, Political and Cultural Behavior and cultural variations develop across different came from the word ‘socius’ which Phenomena societies. means sociology 2.1. Food Taboos - One of the food taboos study of society among Muslims, for instance, is then Cultural Anthropology started from industrial revolution eating of pork. studies cultural variation across different (developed while observing society 2.2. Istambays - Usually regarded as unruly, societies and examines the need to understand during the industrial revolution often suspected as thefts, and of other each culture in its own context Auguste Comte coined the term misdemeanors. Many of them are sociology people who have difficulty in finding Linguistic Anthropology jobs because of inadequate studies language and discourse and how they How do we study society? opportunities in the Philippines. reflect and shape different aspects of human What are the things that you think influence 2.3. Political Dynasties - can be seen in society and culture. your life? families that have been part of the government for several generations Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Biological or Cultural Anthropology Culture Culture is the big picture; it's the overall way of studies the origins of humans as well as the one of the important bases that define life of a group of people. interplay between social factors and the and processes of human evolution, adaptation, and influence a society. Beliefs are specific ideas that people hold to be variation over time refers to the set of beliefs, ideas, values, true. practices, knowledge, history and Political Science shared experiences, attitudes, as well as Traditions are customs or practices that are systematic study of politics, which material objects and possessions passed down from one generation to another. Andrew Heywood describes as “the accumulated over time and shared by activity through which people make, the members of society. Customs are specific ways of doing things that a preserve and amend the general rules refers to a human-made environment group of people follows. under which they live.” which includes all the material and focuses on the fundamental values of nonmaterial products Cultural, Social, Political And Economic Symbols equality, freedom and justice and Practices Characteristics: Concepts, Aspects, and Changes of 1. Culture is social because it is the product Symbol is an object, word, or action that stands Culture and Society of behavior. for something else, without natural relationship, 2. Culture varies from society to society. that is culturally defined. Edward Taylor, one of the founders of modern 3. Culture is shared anthropology, characterize culture as a 4. Culture is learned Symbolism, on the other hand, is when “complex whole” which encompasses beliefs, 5. Culture is transmitted among members something represents abstract ideas or practices, traits, values, attitudes, laws, norms, of society concepts artifacts, symbols, knowledge and everything 6. Culture is continuous and cumulative that a person learns and shares as a member 7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic 1. Social symbols are those relating to of the society human societies and its modes of Material Culture organization A society may refer to group of people that Comprises of articles that are identified with follows or shares same cultures. People, as the material part of our life like 2. Cultural symbols are manifestation that members of the society, possess, produce and our dress, food, and family products. signifies ideology of a particular culture also transmit culture but they cannot consider themselves as culture. No culture can exist Non-material Culture 3. Political symbols are used to represent a without social interaction in society; Alludes to thoughts, standards, musings and political standpoint; seen in various meanwhile, society cannot exist in the absence conviction. Ex. symbols, language, values media and forms such as banners, flag, of people who have learned to live and work and norms. motto, etc together. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 4. Economic symbols used in production, 4. Professional - occurs during the Role Conflict – when an distribution, and consumption of goods early years of an individual's life individual is subjected to a and services like currency, market, (through career path) scenario wherein the individual labor, demands and other economic 5. Re-socialization - When an is required to do more than one activities. individual move to a new group, he task based on his/her role has to learn the new values and beliefs of the new group. Socialization Characteristics and Forms of Stratification Norms – informal understanding that Systems (Sociological Perspectives) Process of learning to behave in a way govern the behavior of members of that is acceptable like the values and society Social Stratification customs of our society or social group. The classification of individuals into It is also known as Enculturation (when Values – provide general guidelines for socioeconomic classes based on cultural knowledge is passed on to the social conduct occupation, income, wealth, and social next bearer) status. Status – position that an individual can Determines relative social position Focus of Socialization occupy in society within a group or society. 1. Acquisition of Knowledge 2. Language Achieved – is one that a person Main Social Classes 3. Values has earned or chosen based on 1. Upper Class – Business tycoons like 4. Habits his/her abilities or hard work. Elon Musk or Bill Gates who own 5. Skill in the Society multinational companies and have Ascribed – is not earned and its significant political and economic Types not something that people have influence. 1. Primary - occurs early in a child’s control over. 2. Middle Class – Teachers, nurses, or lifestyle and is primarily due to have IT professionals who earn a stable an impact directly from the family Roles – refer to the characteristics way income and can afford a comfortable and close friends. of behaving of an individual according to lifestyle but do not have extreme 2. Secondary - occurs when a person his/her status. wealth. learns on appropriate behavior to be 3. Lower Class – Minimum wage displayed within a smaller group Deviance – when one displays a workers, such as fast-food which still part of a larger society. behavior that is against an employees or farm laborers, who 3. Anticipatory - adolescence is individual role. struggle to meet basic needs. initiated between the ages of childhood and adulthood. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Factors Influencing Social Stratification economic factors. Example: A Issues Related to Social Stratification (with religious leader may have power Examples) Kinship and Caste – Status inherited at and prestige, but not necessarily birth, such as the Indian caste system much wealth. Wealth and Income Disparity – The gap between where people are born into specific the rich and poor. roles (e.g., Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Social Mobility Vaishyas, Shudras). The ability of individuals or groups to move Example: The top 1% of society owns within or between social classes. more than the bottom 50% combined in Combination of Caste and Class – A child Types of Social Mobility with Examples some countries. born into a middle-class family can 1. Horizontal Mobility – Change in job achieve an upper-class status through or role without a change in social Ethnicity – Discrimination based on race or education and career success. status. Ex.A police officer transfers cultural background. to a different precinct but remains in Social Desirables the same rank. Example: African Americans in the U.S. Resources considered valuable in 2. Vertical Mobility – Movement historically faced racial segregation and society, categorized into: upward or downward in social class. job discrimination. 1. Power (political or social 3. Upward Mobility - A janitor studies authority). at night, earns a degree, and Gender and Sexual Orientation – Gender wage 2. Wealth (material becomes a school principal. gap, workplace discrimination, and lack of prosperity). 4. Downward Mobility: A businessman opportunities for LGBTQ+ individuals. 3. Prestige (respect and goes bankrupt and has to work as a admiration due to taxi driver. Example: Women are often paid less achievements). 5. Inter-generational Mobility – Change than men for the same work (gender in social status between wage gap). Theories on Social Class generations. Ex. A construction 1. Karl Marx: Social class is determined worker's child becomes a doctor, People with Disabilities (PWDs) – Limited by ownership of the means of moving from a lower class to an access to jobs, education, and healthcare. production (bourgeoisie vs. upper class. proletariat). Example: A factory 6. Intra-generational Mobility – Change Example: A wheelchair user struggles to owner (bourgeoisie) profits from in social status within a single find accessible public transportation. the labor of workers (proletariat) generation. Ex. Two siblings start as but pays them low wages to employees—one becomes a CEO, Work Status – Job security, wages, and benefits maximize earnings. while the other remains in an entry- affecting one's class position. 2. Max Weber: Class is influenced by level job. power, wealth, and prestige, not just Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Example: A contract worker lacks health 4. Sovereignty – The state’s supreme Representative Democracy – People benefits and job security compared to a authority over its people and elect leaders to make decisions for them. regular employee. territory. Example: The Philippines Example: North Korea maintains follows a democratic system Forms and Functions of State and Non-State strict sovereignty with little outside with elected officials. Institutions influence. Roles of the State State Institutions Forms of Government 1. Provides Security – Maintains an army A state is an organized political and police force. community acting under a government 1. Authoritarian Government – Power is Example: The Philippine and united by common laws. It has held by one person or a small group. National Police (PNP) ensures absolute power to direct society, using Monarchy – Ruled by a king or law enforcement. military forces, strict laws, and policies queen. 2. Grants Rights – Issues birth certificates, to maintain order. Example: Saudi Arabia is an passports, and IDs. absolute monarchy, where Example: The Commission on Key Elements of a State the king has full control. Human Rights (CHR) protects 1. Population – The people who make Totalitarianism – The state controls human rights. up a state. all aspects of life. 3. Controls Currency – Manages money Example: A state like Japan has a Example: North Korea circulation. population of over 125 million regulates media, education, Example: The Bangko Sentral ng people. and even personal beliefs. Pilipinas (BSP) regulates 2. Territory – A fixed geographical 2. Oligarchic Government – Power is held Philippine currency. area, including land, water, and by a small elite group. 4. Manages Foreign Relations – Conducts airspace. Theocracy – Government based diplomacy and trade. Example: The Philippines has a on religion. Example: The United Nations defined territory of 7,641 Example: Iran is an Islamic (UN) facilitates global islands. theocracy where laws are peacekeeping. 3. Government – The system that based on religious texts. makes and enforces laws. 3. Democratic Government – Power is held Non-State Institutions Example: The U.S. government by the people. Organizations that operate independently of the has a presidential system with Direct Democracy – Citizens vote government. executive, legislative, and on all decisions. judicial branches. Example: Ancient Athens in A. Banks – Financial institutions that manage Greece practiced direct money. democracy. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Example: Bank of the Philippine Islands Social Inequality and Justice poor student may struggle with (BPI) offers savings and loans. basic school fees. B. Corporations – Businesses owned by Understanding Equality 4. Global Inequality – Differences in shareholders. Equality ensures that everyone has an economic and social conditions between Example: Apple Inc. is a multinational equal opportunity to succeed in life, countries. technology corporation. regardless of birth, location, beliefs, or Example: Developed nations like C. Cooperatives – Organizations owned by disabilities. the U.S. have advanced members for mutual benefit. It seeks to eliminate barriers that healthcare, while developing Example: National Federation of prevent people from reaching their full countries struggle with diseases Cooperatives of Persons with potential. and malnutrition. Disabilities (NFCPWD) in the Philippines. Social Inequality Social Inequality in Education D. Trade Unions – Protect workers’ rights. Despite efforts to promote equality, social Disadvantaged groups tend to have Example: Kilusan Mayo Uno (KMU) inequalities still persist in various aspects of lower educational achievement due to fights for fair wages in the Philippines. society. financial struggles, discrimination, or E. Transnational Advocacy Groups – Influence lack of school facilities. international policies. Causes of Social Inequality Despite education reforms, there is still Example: Greenpeace campaigns for inequality in learning outcomes. environmental protection. 1. Gender Inequality – Unequal treatment F. Development Agencies – Promote economic of individuals based on gender. Legal Frameworks Addressing Inequality growth. Example: Women are often paid 1. Philippine Laws on Social Inequality Example: The Asian Development Bank less than men for the same job R.A. 7610 (Special Protection of Children (ADB) funds infrastructure projects. (gender wage gap). Against Abuse, Exploitation, and G. International Organizations – Mediate 2. Healthcare Disparities – Limited access Discrimination Act) political and economic relations. to quality medical care for marginalized Protects women and children Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) groups. from abuse and discrimination. – Made up of governments. Example: Poor communities 2. Women in Government Leadership Example: The United Nations struggle to afford hospital Women are now allowed to hold (UN) resolves global conflicts. services and medicines. top government positions. Supranational Organizations – Have 3. Social Class Differences – Wealthy authority over multiple nations. individuals have better access to Effects of Social Inequality Example: The European Union education, jobs, and healthcare than the 1. Educational Attainment – Poor (EU) governs trade policies for poor. individuals struggle to finish school. member states. Example: A rich student can Example: Many students drop afford to study abroad, while a out due to financial problems. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 2. Wealth and Poverty Gap – The rich get International inequality richer, while the poor remain poor. Refers to economic differences between Example: Billionaires own huge countries. companies, but workers receive Global inequality refers to disparities minimum wages. within and between nations. 3. Power Disparities – The elite class holds more influence over policies. Equality vs. Social Justice Example: Business tycoons Equality - Everyone is given the lobby for laws that benefit their same opportunities. industries. o Example: Giving all 4. Gender Inequality – Women and students the same exam LGBTQ+ individuals face time regardless of their discrimination. ability. Example: Women are Social Justice - Recognizes that underrepresented in STEM people start from different (Science, Technology, conditions and provides fair Engineering, Mathematics) support. careers. o Example: Giving students with Indigenous and Ethnic Group Inequality disabilities extra time or Indigenous communities often face learning aids during discrimination, land dispossession, exams. and lack of government support. They have a distinct culture, language, and identity but are often marginalized. Economic and Political Challenges Government policies affect income distribution and social welfare. If policies are ineffective, the gap between the rich and poor grows.8. International Inequality Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) launched by English biochemist Frederick 1. The discovery of a way to break a strand GENERAL BIOLOGY Sanger and his colleagues. Sanger and his team of DNA at specific sites along its Grade Eleven I Angelo L, Loyola Senior High School worked out the complete nucleotide sequence nucleotide sequence. in the DNA of the virus known as phage θX174. 2. The development of a process for This breakthrough enabled researchers to copying or amplifying DNA. Topic 1: Genetic Engineering compare the exact sequence of the 5386 3. The improvement of methods for nucleotides bases in the virus with the sorting and analyzing DNA molecules. Genetic Engineering is used to manipulate the polypeptide products of the virus’s nine genes. genes of other organisms in order to produce As they studied the DNA sequence, the Restriction Endonucleases beneficial products for humans. researchers made some new discoveries about the organization of genetic material. For In order to defend themselves against infection Genetic engineering has helped to increase crop example, from the fact that one of the genes of by foreign DNA, most prokaryotic organisms productivity by introducing qualities such as this virus is located entirely within the coding manufacture a family of enzymes known as disease resistance and increased drought sequence of another, longer gene, they learned restriction endonucleases. tolerance to the crops. that genes can overlap. Restriction endonucleases recognize a specific Example: Genetic Engineered papaya that is short sequence of nucleotides (the target resistant to the Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV). sequence) on a strand of DNA and cut the strand at a particular point within that sequence. This In addition, microorganisms can be used for point is known as a restriction site. microbial bioremediation. Usage of microorganisms to break down harmful Specificity environmental contaminants, to restore the 1. The cuts made by an endonuclease are environment to a healthier state. specific and predictable 2. It produces an identical set of smaller Meanwhile, there are possible risks associated 3. pieces called restriction fragments. with using transgenic crops in agriculture. a. Risk of introducing allergens & Staggered cuts toxins into safe foods Most restriction endonucleases produce a b. Transgenic crops might produce staggered cut that leaves a few unpaired uncontrollable ‘super weeds’ nucleotides remaining on a single strand at each c. Religious values & ethics The work of Sanger’s team relied on three end of the restriction fragment. These short important developments: sequences, often referred to as sticky ends, can In 1977, a new era in genetic engineering was then form base pairs with other short strands having a complementary sequence. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Topic 2: Biotechnology The manipulation of biological processes and/or organisms for the benefit of mankind Recombinant DNA DNA that has been created artificially (not natural). DNA from two or more sources is incorporated into a single recombinant molecule. Illustration by Khan Academy In this way, researchers can produce recombinant DNA by joining DNA from two different sources. The first recombinant DNA was created in 1973 by the American team of Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer. They splice a gene from a toad into a bacterial plasmid. The recombinant plasmid can then be returned to a bacterial cell. As the cell multiplies, it replicates the plasmids containing the foreign DNA. In this way, millions of copies of the DNA fragment can be produced. The plasmid here serves as a cloning vector, this cloning method is still in use today as a means of amplifying larger DNA sequences. For short fragments of up to about 1000 base pairs. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Host cells pass the recombinant DNA molecules on their progeny (population of cells) Recombinant DNA Technology Process Cloned DNA segments recovered from host cells for purification and analysis Plasmids A gene is located on a chromosome map (RFLP) Molecules of DNA that are found in bacteria Act as a system to transfer genetic material to other bacteria, A DNA library is constructed – plasmid are obtained, cleavage occurs and allowing those to express the transmitted genes. RDNA prod. small (a few thousand base pairs) usually carry only one or a few genes circular The gene of interest is isolated (cloned) from the library via plasmid DNA have a single origin of replication isolation, restriction digestion and electrophoresis Polymerase Chain Reaction It is an almost entirely automated method Multiple copies of gene interest are produced for study. of replicating DNA that allows researchers to target and amplify a very specific Steps sequence within a DNA sample. It was developed by American researcher Kary Mullis in 1986 and earned him the Nobel Restriction prize. enzymes “cuts” DNA ligase The cut segments DNA “pastes” the DNA are inserted into 1. The sample DNA fragment is placed in other DNA at specific sites fragments molecules that a solution along with nucleotides and (restriction together serves as vectors primers. fragments) 2. The solution is heated to break the hydrogen bonds between base pairs, Vectors which causes the DNA double helix to open. Carrier of DNA molecules and transfers the RDNA into the host cell. 3. Next, the solution is cooled. Heat Within host cells, vectors can replicate producing many DNA resistant DNA polymerase is then segments or identical copies (clones) added. The DNA polymerase now starts adding nucleotides, in the 5′ to 3′ direction, to the daughter DNA strands. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) 4. In just over a minute, both DNA strands are replicated, resulting in two This fan diagram represents the six kingdoms of life extending out over the copies of the original target sequence. geologic time scale. The origin of life is shown at the base during the Precambrian Era, and present-day species are represented along the outer Topic 3: Evidences of Evolution edge. Charles Darwin assembled a group of facts that had previously seemed unrelated in The Origin of Species. However, before and after publication of this book, biologists, geologists, geographers, paleontologists, and other scientists provided a wealth of information that supported and strengthened the theory of evolution. 1. The Fossil Record Fossils are made when organisms become buried in sediment that is eventually converted into rock. Sedimentary rocks with fossils reveal a fossil record of the history of life on Earth and show the kind of organisms that were alive in the past. Geologic Time Scale As an example, the fossil history of vertebrates shows that fossilized fishes are the oldest vertebrate fossils. Next to appear in the vertebrate fossil record are amphibians, followed by reptiles, and then birds and mammal. Biologists and paleontologists have gathered evidence that shows that amphibians evolved from ancestral fish, reptiles from ancestral amphibians, Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) and so on, up through the vertebrate groups. It is important to keep in mind Anatomy the vast amounts of time that the history of life covers. When the anatomy of various animals is examined, more evidence for evolution of animals from common ancestors is revealed. In the figure Geographical Distribution of Species below, it shows the forelimbs and individual bones of five vertebrates. All of the limbs have the same basic arrangement of bones, yet they are modified Biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of species. into wings, arms, legs, and fins. The present arrangements of bones in the Darwin’s thinking was influenced by the distribution of animals. Recall that animals shown in are variations on a common structural theme. As these he wondered why the birds in the Galápagos Islands so closely resembled animals descended from common ancestors, the same bones were put to those on the closest continent, South America. This suggests that animals on different uses. The bones have the same origin yet they now differ in islands have evolved from mainland migrants, with populations adapting structure and function. Such anatomical signs of evolution are called over time to adjust to the environmental conditions of their new home. homologous structures. Meanwhile, body parts of organisms that do not have a common evolutionary origin but perform similar functions are called analogous structures. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Heredity Adaptation believed that life gradually evolved. However, When Darwin published The Origin of two of the most influential philosophers in Species, the science of genetics and an A particular structure, physiology, or Western culture, Plato and Aristotle, did not understanding of heredity was not yet behaviour that helps an organism support ideas that organisms could change. For established. This meant that Darwin survive and reproduce in a particular example, Aristotle thought that all organisms could not completely explain the environment. that ever would exist were already created. He mechanism that drove natural selection. Camouflage is one adaptation. The also believed that these organisms were Today, since the laws of inheritance and superb sense of smell of a shark or the permanent and perfect and would not change. the science of genetics are more clearly bill shape of a shore bird are also Religious beliefs of Darwin’s time said that all understood, the variations in organisms adaptations. organisms and their individual structures required for natural selection to occur resulted from the direct actions of a Creator who can be explained. Natural Selection formed the entire universe. It was thought that A process whereby the characteristics of a all species were created during a single week Molecular Biology population of organisms change because and that they remained unchanged over the The evolutionary relationships among individuals with certain heritable traits survive course of time. The predominant belief that species are reflected in their DNA and specific local environmental conditions and Earth was only a few thousand years old proteins. pass on their traits to their offspring. fortified the idea of a single act of creation. Since DNA carries genetic information, how closely related two organisms are Artificial Selection 2. Cuvier’s Fossil can be determined by comparing their People have been artificially selecting The science of paleontology, which is the study DNA. organisms for particular traits for centuries. of fossils, provided important clues that helped If two species have similar patterns in Artificial selection for desirable traits has to develop the theory of evolution. French their DNA, this similarity indicates that resulted in plants that are disease-resistant, scientist Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) is largely these sequences must have been cows that produce more milk, and racehorses credited with developing the science of inherited from a common ancestor. that run faster. paleontology. Cuvier realized that the history of life was recorded in Earth’s layers of rocks, which contained fossils. Cuvier found that each Evolution Topic 4: Developing the Theory of of the layers, or strata, of rock is characterized The word “evolution” is commonly used in English but its meaning is often misunderstood Evolution by a unique group of fossil species and that the or misused. In biology, evolution refers to the deeper (older) the stratum, the more dissimilar relative change in the characteristics of the plant and animal life are from modern life. 1. Historical Context populations that occurs over The English naturalist Charles Darwin was by no successive generations. means the first (or only) person to influence thought on what is commonly referred to as the theory of evolution. Several Greek philosophers Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) For example, the rodents in South America were structurally similar to one another but were quite different from rodents he had observed on other continents. Of particular importance was Darwin’s observation that species living in the cooler, temperate regions of South America were more closely related to species living in the tropical regions of that continent than to the species in the temperate regions of Europe or elsewhere in the world. He noted that lands that have similar climates seemed to have unrelated plants and animals. Topic 5: Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium One way to determine how a real population does change over time is to develop a model of a population that does not change genetically from one generation to the next. Then, actual populations can be compared with this hypothetical model. Such a model was developed independently and published almost simultaneously in 1908 by English mathematician G.H. Hardy and German physician G. Weinberg. 3. Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a theory of evolution in 1809, the year Charles Darwin was born and 50 years before Darwin would where: finally publish his own ideas on evolution. p = frequency of dominant allele q = frequency of recessive allele Lamarck believed that the organisms would become progressively better and p2 = frequency of individuals homozygous for allele A better adapted to their environments. It was thought at the time that body 2pq = frequency of individuals heterozygous for alleles A and a parts that were used extensively to cope with conditions in the environment q2 = frequency of individuals homozygous for allele a would become larger and stronger (the idea of “use and disuse”). Lamarck’s idea fit with this line of reasoning. For example, he proposed that a blacksmith would develop a larger biceps in the arm in which he holds his hammer. 4. Darwin’s Evidence Darwin gathered evidence and made many important observations that led him to realize how life forms change over time and vary from place to place. First, he noted that the flora and fauna of the different regions he visited were distinct from those he had explored in England, Europe, and elsewhere. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) Example: Field Mice Using the Hardy-Weinberg equation, p = 0.7 and q = 0.3 (p + q must equal 1). The figure shows the possible scenarios thatcan result when gametes combine their alleles to form zygotes. The Hardy-Weinberg equation states that the probability of generating an AA genotype is p2. So, in our population of field mice, the probability of an A sperm fertilizing an A ovum to produce an AA zygote is 0.49 (which is 0.7 × 0.7). The frequency of individuals homozygous for the other allele (aa) is q2, or 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.09. The genotype Aa can arise in two ways, depending on which parent contributes the dominant allele. o Therefore, the frequency of heterozygous individuals in the population is 2pq (2 × 0.7 × 0.3 = 0.42 in our example). All of these possible genotypes add up to 1 (0.49 + 0.09 + 0.42 = 1). Topic 6: Speciation Speciation is a process within evolution that leads to the formation of new, distinct species that are reproductively isolated from one another. 1. Allopatric Speciation In this population, 70 percent (0.7) of the fur-colour loci in the gene When members of a population become geographically isolated from one pool have the A allele and 30 percent (0.3) have the a allele. The another, to the extent that genetic exchange, through mating, is prevented or equation can be applied to see how genetic recombination during interfered with. This may be a result of geographical changes, such as the sexual reproduction will affect the frequencies of the two alleles in formation of a mountain by a volcano, island formation, habitat separation the next generation of field mice. by glaciers and rivers, or habitat fragmentation caused by human activity. The Hardy-Weinberg principle assumes that mating is completely Alternatively, species members may emigrate, resulting in population random and that all embryos will survive. The gametes — sperm and separation by dispersal; this is commonly known as vicariance. ova — each have one allele for fur colour, and the allele frequencies of the gametes will be the same as the allele frequencies in the parent. Every time a gamete is drawn from the pool at random, the chance that the gamete will bear an A allele is 0.7, and the chance that the gamete will have an a allele is 0.3. Compiler: Garcia, E. B. (2025) population, organisms which are able to survive within the new environment may carry genes that were rare within the main population but that cause a slight variation to behavior or morphology. Illustration by Biology Dictionary 2. Sympatric Speciation The evolutionary process whereby species are formed from a single ancestral species while inhab