General Chemistry 1 - Lesson 1-4 - PDF

S1Q2L1 General Chemistry 1 angular function (Y) 2. Angular momentum Lesson 1 - The Use of Quantum - a function of angles θ and Φ, quantum number (l) Numbers to Describe an Electron of depicts the shape of...

S1Q2L1 General Chemistry 1 angular function (Y) 2. Angular momentum Lesson 1 - The Use of Quantum - a function of angles θ and Φ, quantum number (l) Numbers to Describe an Electron of depicts the shape of the orbital - also called as an Atom and its orientation in azimuthal quantum three-dimensional space. number which can be Wave Function any whole - a function of the coordinates quantum numbers number (0,1, 2, 3,...). describing the location of the - a set of numbers represented For every value of n, the electron in three-dimensional by every radial and angular allowable values for l space functions are from 0 to n-1. - conventionally expressed in - These numbers can give one another coordinate system information about the energy 3. Magnetic quantum called the spherical and orbital in which a certain number (mI) coordinate system electron occupies - corresponds to the - the position of a point is orientation of an atomic expressed in terms of the Four Quantum Numbers orbital in three- distance of the point from the 1. Principal quantum dimensional space. origin, r, and angles θ and Φ number (n) - is the quantum number Radial and Angular Functions that describes the energy level of an electron, as well as the size of the atom 4. Electron spin quantum number (mS) radial function (R) - represents the electron density Zeeman Effect or the probability of finding an - an emission line of elements electron at a given distance undergo splitting into two or from the nucleus (r). more lines in the presence of magnetic field.  - Named after the discoverer Pauli Exclusion Principle Pieter Zeeman, a Dutch - Wolfgang Pauli, an Austrian physicist physicist, postulated that, “No two electrons can have the Stern-Gerlach Experiment same set of four quantum - In the early 1920s, Otto Stern numbers” and Walter Gerlach made an experiment revealing that Electrons in a Subshell atoms and its subatomic - As a consequence of the Pauli particles have permissible Exclusion Principle, the number observations - of electrons that can be held in each subshell is twice the Types of subshells Electron Spin number of orbitals present in - The concept of electron spin that subshell S - 1 orbital, can hold 2 electrons gave rise from observations P - 3 orbitals, can hold 6 electrons notes when an electron is D - 5 orbitals, can hold 10 electrons subjected to magnetic field F - 7 orbitals, can hold 14 electrons - Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck theorized Atomic number = Number of Protons that an electron can be thought as a charged sphere rotating on Number of Protons = Number of its axis, either clockwise or Electrons (If no charge) counterclockwise S1Q2L2 General Chemistry 1 Lesson 2 - Determining the Magnetic Pauli Exclusion Principle Spin Quantum Number Property of the Atom Based on its - an orbital can hold a maximum - This quantum number can have Electronic Configuration of two electrons, and they must a value of +1/2 or -1/2, have opposite spins (one with a corresponding to “spin-up” or Electronic Configuration spin-up and one with a “spin-down”, respectively. - refers to the distribution of spin-down) electrons in an atom’s orbitals.  strong permanent magnetism Types of Magnetic Properties Hund’s Rule 1. Diamagnetism - when electrons fill degenerate - This property occurs in S1Q2L3 General Chemistry 1 orbitals (orbitals of the same atoms where all the Lesson 3 - Drawing an Orbital energy, such as the three p electrons are paired. Diagram to Represent the Electron orbitals or the five orbitals), one - No attracted Configuration of Atoms electron enters each orbital singly before pairing up 2. Paramagnetism Electron Configuration - Paramagnetism occurs - describes how electrons are in atoms that have distributed in its atomic orbitals unpaired electrons. - Attracted 3. Ferromagnetism - much stronger magnetic property. - In ferromagnetic Aufbau’s Principle materials, the unpaired - Electrons fill the lowest atomic electrons not only create orbitals first. One orbital can magnetic moments, but Orbital hold two electrons with opposite these moments also - three-dimensional region spin. align parallel to each around the nucleus of an atom other, leading to a  where there is a high probability 2. Angular nodes of finding an electron - planar or clone areas Ions around the nucleus - the Lewis Structure shows the Atomic orbitals where the probability of charge by adjusting the number - mathematical functions that finding an electron is of electrons whether the ion is describe the wave nature of zero positive or negative electrons (or electron pairs) in - the Lewis structure can help an atom visualize how atoms gain or lose electrons to form cations and anions S1Q2L4 General Chemistry 1 Lesson 4 - Lewis Structure of Ions Nodes Lewis Structure Carbon would need four more - The area or space where there - represents the arrangement of electrons to fulfill its octet. Sulfur would is no electron located. electrons in a molecule or ion need two. Xenon would not need any, - It is a point where a wave - shows how atoms are bonded as it already has eight valence function passes through zero together electrons. 2 Types of Nodes - shows how valence electrons 1. Radial nodes are arranged - spherical surfaces - often called electron dot around the nucleus structures where the probability of - depict the bonding between finding an electron is atoms within a molecule and zero the lone pairs of electrons in the molecule Examples: 3. HPO₄²⁻ Why do covalent elements follow 1. NH₄⁺ the octet rule? - Atoms want to achieve a full outer shell to become stable - They can do this by sharing, giving, or taking electrons - Atoms 'share' their electrons with each other to complete their outer shell - This sharing allows both atoms to use the shared electrons, S1Q2L5 General Chemistry 1 helping them reach 8 electrons Lesson 5 - OCTET RULE IN COVALENT COMPOUNDS Lone pair - A pair of electrons that is not octet rule shared - refers to the tendency of atoms Bonding pairs to bond in such a way that they - The shared pairs of electrons each have eight electrons in Double bond their valence shell - sharing two pairs of electrons - creating more stable compound Triple bond configuration similar to noble - sharing three pairs of electrons 2. CO₃²⁻ gases - In covalent bonds, the octet rule Exceptions in Octet rule means that atoms share - Incomplete Octet: electrons to have a total of 8 Some atoms, like electrons in their outer shell hydrogen (H) and boron (valence shell) (B), are stable with fewer than 8 electrons Hydrogen is stable with 2 electrons.  Boron often forms stable - following the direction of the compounds with 6 arrow on the picture, the electrons element that comes first should - Expanded Octet: In molecules be written before another such as PCl₅, ICl₅ element Example for Octet Rule: Simplified Rule Water (H₂O) 1. In the cases of two different - oxygen shares electrons with elements(except for Hydrogen) two hydrogen atoms to fill its in different groups, the element outer shell closest to the left of the periodic - Oxygen needs 2 more electrons Remember table should be written first to complete 8 in its outer shell. - There is no need to put the 2. If both elements belong to the - Hydrogen shares 1 electron prefix “mono” if the there is only same group, the one located on with oxygen, allowing oxygen to 1 atom in the first element the lower part should be written reach its octet. - To name the Molecular first. - Hydrogen is stable with just 2 Compound: Prefix + element 3. Elements from groups 13 to 15 electrons (as it's an exception name + ide(only for the 2nd are written before Hydrogen. to the octet rule) element) 4. Elements from groups 16 and The IUPAC Rule 17 are written after Hydrogen. S1Q2L6 General Chemistry 1 - The International Union of Lesson 6 - Writing the Formula of Pure and Applied Chemistry S1Q2L7 General Chemistry 1 Molecular Compounds Formed by (IUPAC) Lesson 7 - DRAW LEWIS the Nonmetallic Elements of the STRUCTURE OF MOLECULAR Representative Block COVALENT COMPOUNDS Molecular Compounds Lewis Structure of Molecular - Consists only of nonmetals Covalent Compounds - Its name can tell you the - how atoms share electrons to number of atoms achieve full outer shells or a - It uses prefixes to determine stable electron configuration the number of atoms Covalent Bonds electrons used (they will match Tweaking Lewis Structure - Lewis Structures are only for step 1 if the structure is - Too Many Electrons Initially: covalently bonded molecules. correct). If your valence Redraw the Lewis structure - Covalent bonds mean that electrons don't match, you will from step 2 adding a double electrons are shared between need to tweak your structure as bond. If you still have too many atoms. follows. electrons add another multiple - Single bond = 2 electrons to bond and repeat each atom Drawing Lewis Structures - Always add double bonds - Double bond = 4 electrons to before triple bonds each atom - Triple Bond = 6 electrons to each atom Rules for Molecules with an Overall - Quadruple Bond = 8 electrons Charge to each atom - When figuring out the number of electrons available, make Rules for Drawing Lewis Structure: sure to add or subtract as 1. Count the total number of indicated by the charge. valence electrons - Create the Lewis Structure the 2. identify the central atom (the same as always. first atom written unless that - Put square brackets [ ] around atom is hydrogen). Place all the structure. terminal atoms around that - Write the charge in a atom. superscript. - Hydrogen atoms - Called a "Coordinate Covalent NEVER have more than Bond". one bond. 3. Complete the octet for all atoms Lewis Structure - Charge in the Lewis structure with lone - Molecule has negative charge = pairs of electrons (except gained extra electrons hydrogen). - Molecule has positive charge = 4. Check your structure by lost some electrons counting the number of valence Octet Rule Violation atoms in three- dimensional - three atoms make a 1. Odd-electron molecules space triangular base, and a - some stable compounds lone pair pushes them have an odd number of types of molecular geometry downward, creating a electrons in their 1. Bond Angle: 180° - Linear 3D pyramid shape valence shells - atoms form a straight - at least one atom in the line—think of it like a 5. Bond Angle: 109.5° (like in molecule will have to stick with an atom on methane, CH₄) - Tetrahedral violate the octet rule each end - Four atoms surround - lone pairs on the central the central atom in a atom, so it stays straight way that’s super 2. Electron - deficient molecules balanced. It’s stable and - These stable 2. Bond Angle: Around 104.5° very common in compounds have less (like in water, H₂O) - Bent molecules. than eight electrons - atoms make a “V” or “L” around an atom in the shape, thanks to lone 6. Bond Angle: 90° - octahedral molecule pairs that push them - has six atoms around 3. Expanded valence shell closer together the central atom, molecule - those lone pairs push forming a square in the - These compound have the atoms into an angle middle with two atoms more than eight sticking up and down. electrons assigned to 3. Bond Angle: 120° - Trigonal their valence shell Planar how to determine the shape of a - Imagine a flat triangle molecule S1Q2L8 General Chemistry 1 around the central - use Lewis dot structures to find Lesson 8 - Geometry of Simple atom—three atoms the bonds and lone pairs in a Compounds spaced out evenly in a molecule 2D shape - While Lewis theory doesn’t MOLECULAR GEOMETRY actually tell us the shape, it - a shape of a molecule created 4. Bond Angle: Around 107° helps us use VSEPR theory to from the arrangement of its (like in ammonia, NH₃) - figure out the molecular and Trigonal Pyramidal electron-group geometries  - If the charges are uneven (like - the electrons are unevenly step in determining the shape of a positive on one side, negative shared between the atoms in molecule on the other), the molecule is the molecule polar - If the charges are balanced, the Factors Affecting Polarity molecule is nonpolar Electronegativity - how strongly an atom Molecular polarity attracts electrons in a - when a molecule has one side bond that is slightly positive and the - the atom with the other side slightly negative stronger pull becomes - This happens when atoms in a slightly negative, while molecule pull on shared the other becomes electrons unequally, creating a slightly positive small charge difference - creates a polar bond - H2O - polar because its bent - The bigger the shape means one side has difference in more negative charge, while the electronegativity, the other side is more positive more polar the bond - CO2 - nonpolar because their Molecular Shape straight shape balances the - affects whether it’s charges overall polar or nonpolar - Polarity affects how molecules - Symmetrical shape = behave, interact, and what nonpolar S1Q2L9 General Chemistry 1 properties they have - Uneven shape = polar Lesson 9 - DETERMINE THE POLARITY OF SIMPLE MOLECULES Dipole DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLAR - when a molecule has two AND NONPOLAR MOLECULES Polarity opposite ends: one end is - how charges are spread in a slightly positive, and the other is Polar Molecules molecule slightly negative - molecules with an uneven distribution  - when one atom pulls electrons Nomenclature of Common more strongly than another due Overall Symmetry Functional Groups to differences in - Symmetrical molecules (e.g., electronegativity CO2, CCl4) tend to be HYDROCARBONS non-polar, while asymmetrical - Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes Nonpolar Molecules molecules (e.g., H2O, NH3) are are represented by the symbol - molecules with evenly usually polar. R distributed charges - also referred to as hydrocarbyl - Nonpolar molecules generally EXAMPLES OF DETERMINING groups since they contain only don’t mix with water but do WHETHER A MOLECULE IS POLAR hydrogen and carbon atoms dissolve in other nonpolar OR NONPOLAR - reactivity of these groups varies substances like oils due to the nature of the Steps To Determine a Molecule if it’s carbon-carbon bond Polar or Nonpolar - may have an ionic charge on them Electronegativity Difference - positively charged structures = - If there is a significant carbocations difference in electronegativity - negatively charged between atoms (usually > 0.4), hydrocarbons = carbanions the bond is polar. ALKANES - All single bonds Molecular Geometry - Their names end with -ane - Even if individual bonds are S1Q2L10 General Chemistry 1 - Ethane polar, the molecule can be Lesson 10 - Functional Groups ALKYNES nonpolar if its geometry is - A carbon to carbon triple bond. symmetrical, causing the bond Functional Groups - Their names end with -yne. dipoles to cancel out - substituent atoms or groups of - Ethyne atoms that are attached to ALKENES Presence of Lone Pairs specific molecules - A carbon to carbon double - Lone pairs on the central atom - responsible for the substance’s bond. can create asymmetry, often unique chemical reactions - Their names end with -ene. making the molecule polar - Ethene  molecule are arranged in the - A group of atoms consisting of HALOALKANES form of a ring C=O bond is referred to as the - alkyl halides are the functional - are also saturated, meaning carbonyl group groups which contain a bond that all of the carbons atoms - If a carbonyl group is added to between a carbon atom and a that make up the ring are single a carbon-containing group, the halogen bonded to other atoms resulting group is called the - prefix used is ‘halo-’ - Cyclobutane, Cyclopentane, acyl group - CH3F can be called Cyclohexane ALCOHOL fluoromethane, and the prefix - 1 oxygen here is fluoro AROMATIC RINGS - Can be classified as 1°/2°/3° - suffix used to denote a halogen - flat, ring-shaped molecules with according to position of O-H is the ‘halide’ a special type of stability due to group on carbon skeleton - fluoromethane (CH3F) can also a unique arrangement of - Has an O-H group be referred to as methyl electrons - They are named as alkanol fluoride, the suffix being fluoride - The simplest example is ETHER - carbon-halogen bond varies in benzene, a six-carbon ring with - 1 oxygen strength and stability based on alternating single and double - No O-H or C=O group the halogen bonds - The oxygen is sandwiched - carbon-iodine bond in alkyl - This arrangement allows the between two carbon atoms iodides is quiet weak but the electrons to be shared across - Their names end with -ether carbon-fluorine bond in alkyl the ring, creating a stable ALDEHYDES fluorides is quiet strong and structure. - Only 1 oxygen stable - Has a C-O group - Excluding the alkyl fluorides, all OXYGEN-CONTAINING - C=O group is at the end of the the alkyl halides readily COMPOUNDS carbon chain, so is next door to undergo elimination reactions - The properties of the functional a hydrogen atom or nucleophilic substitution groups containing a - They are named as alkanal reactions carbon-oxygen bond are KETONE entirely dependent on the - Only 1 oxygen CYCLOALKANES hybridization of the - Has a C-O group - cyclic hydrocarbons, meaning carbon-oxygen bond that the carbons of the  - C=O group is not at the end of - Phenomenon where different 2. Position Isomerism H- -C carbon chain, so is next structural isomers exist for a (Positional Isomerism) door to 2 carbons given molecular formula - Same molecular - They are named as alkanone formula, different CARBOXYLIC ACID Molecular Formula positions of substituent - Has 2 oxygen - A type of chemical formula that atoms, groups, or - Has O-H and C=O groups on indicates the number and type unsaturation along the the same carbon atom of atoms present in a molecule main chain - This -COOH group has to be at the end of a carbon chain. Structural Isomers - They are named as alkanoic - Also known as constitutional acid isomers ESTER - Compounds that share the - Has 2 oxygens same molecular formula but - One oxygen is part of a C=O have different arrangements of 3. Functional Group Isomerism bond, the other is next door, atoms - Same chemical formula, sandwiched between two - Specific molecule with a unique different functional carbons. arrangement of atoms groups, resulting in - They are named as distinct structures alkylalkanoate 1. Chain Isomerism (skeletal isomerism) S1Q2L11 General Chemistry 1 - Compounds have the Lesson 11 - Structural Isomerism same molecular formula but different Structural Isomerism arrangements of their - Molecules that have the same carbon chain number of atoms but are connected in a different way - Molecules having the same formula but different connections S1Q2L12 General Chemistry 1 ELIMINATION REACTION Lesson 12 - SIMPLE REACTIONS OF - the reverse of addition ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - In this reaction, a molecule releases some atoms to form a ADDITION REACTION new molecule - refers to the process in which - This allows the creation of an organic compound combines alkenes and alkynes from with another compound (not saturated compounds necessarily organic) to form a bigger molecule CONDENSATION REACTION - This allows the creation of - chemical reaction where two saturated compounds from molecules combine to form a unsaturated compounds like larger molecule, releasing a alkene (double bonds) and smaller molecule, often water, alkyne (triple bonds) as a byproduct - the double or triple bonds in the - This reaction is common in the unsaturated compound can formation of complex molecules “open up", allowing new atoms like proteins and carbohydrates or groups to attach across - For instance, when two amino those bonds acids join to form a peptide, they release a water molecule through condensation  SAPONIFICATION - occurs when a fat or oil (which are triglycerides) reacts with a strong base, typically sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) - results in the formation of soap and glycerol (glycerin) - involved in soap making - To make soap, triacylglycerol, a triester obtained from oil, reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce sodium salts of fatty acids, or soap, and glycerol. This process is a special type of a substitution reaction S1Q2L13 General Chemistry 1 COMBUSTION REACTION Lesson 13 - Describe the formation - most common reaction of and structure of polymers organic compounds and is also known as burning Polymer - Exothermic process wherein - large molecule consisting of oxygen reacts with a chains of repeating units called hydrocarbon monomers that are linked to - end-product of a complete each other by covalent bonds combustion of a hydrocarbon - CAN HAVE HUNDREDS OR such as methane always THOUSANDS OF produces carbon dioxide and MOLECULES water - An incomplete combustion will result in a carbon monoxide  Classification based on the formation of a monomers present homopolymer of A 1. Homopolymer followed by the - consists only one kind of introduction of B in the monomer presence of high energy - Ideally, n molecules of a 2. Heteropolymer monomer A forms of a polymer - has two or more types Classification of synthetic polymers consisting of n repeating units of monomer in one based on methods of preparation of A chain - Structural formulas of a polymer 1. Chain-Growth Polymerization is represented by the monomer Copolymer - occurs when a radical or ionic enclosed with square brackets - different monomers are allowed initiator reacts with a monomer - A subscript after the square to undergo copolymerization in (usually alkenes) to produce a bracket indicates the number of order to form a polymer suitable reactive species with which monomer units for its intended application another monomer molecule will - have alternating or random react Major classification arrangement of the monomers - The process continues until the based on origin - Formation can occur under monomers are used up. 1. Natural polymers controlled conditions to make - Formation of chain-growth - prepared through special types: polymers occurs via a series of biochemical processes Block copolymers - addition reactions. - found in humans, formed when a ''block'' - Three major steps: animals, plants and or small chain of one Chain-initiation step other organisms monomer (A) is treated Chain-propagation 2. Synthetic polymers with a different step - man-made polymers monomer (B). The Chain-termination step that are prepared from introduction of B was - Under some conditions, commercially available done when the polymerization may include compounds polymerization of A was chain-branching step - arious plastic-made still ongoing ❖ Tacticity products, fabrics, and Graft copolymers - - relative position of these adhesives produced by the groups, called the  pendant groups of the either side of the the different types of polymer polymer backbone structures - For chain-growth polymers, the groups 2. Step-Growth Polymerization Example of Structure of Polymers attached to the alkene - those formed in a stepwise that affects its Property monomer can affect the manner that polymer chains properties of the may grow separately without Chain Length resulting polymer depending on other growing - a term used to describe the - Based on tacticity, polymers number of links in a chain. It's chain-growth polymers - Growth of polymer chains important because the length of can be classified as: occurs either via a series of the chain determines how it can Isotactic addition or condensation be used polymers - reactions - Longer chains can make consist of substances stronger and more pendant groups S1Q2L14 General Chemistry 1 rigid arranged on the Lesson 14 - Explain the properties - shorter chains tend to be more same side of the of some Polymers in terms of their flexible and softer polymer Structure backbone Syndiotactic How does Structure Affects the polymers - Property of Polymers? consist of - Think of polymers like chains of pendant groups linked beads. The way these arranged in chains are arranged and alternating connected determines the Branching manner properties of the polymer - polymers made up of main Atactic - The structure of a polymer chain(linear chain) with smaller polymers - determines its properties, such chains as branches of main consist of as its strength, flexibility, chain are called branched chain pendant groups melting point, and chemical polymers randomly resistance. By understanding - They have lower melting points, oriented on densities and tensile strength  as compared to linear FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF polymers. BIOMOLECULES: - Example: Polypropylene. - these side chains can make the 1. CARBOHYDRATES polymer more flexible and less - Formally known as saccharides dense PVC - derived from the french term hydrate de carbone Cross-linked - major source of energy for the - like several necklaces linked body together. The beads from one - general empirical structure for necklace are connected to the Carbohydrates is (CH2O)n beads of other necklaces, - main function is to supply the creating a stronger, more rigid cells with "instant energy” structure - This cross-linking makes the polymer more resistant to heat, S1Q2L15 General Chemistry 1 chemicals, and mechanical Lesson 15 - DESCRIBE THE stress STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS, NUCLEIC ACIDS, LIPIDS, AND Explain some Polymers and the CARBOHYDRATES, AND RELATE structure of its monomers, affecting THEM TO THEIR FUNCTION its overall property CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMOLECULES CARBOHYDRATES LDPE - also called biological molecule ❖ MONOSACCHARIDES - numerous substances that are - simplest sugar and the produced by cells and living basic subunit of a organisms carbohydrates - Monomer - smallest functioning - These compounds are unit of biomolecules white solid at room - Dimer - 2 monomers temperature - Polymer - several monomers are put together  - most common are - Maltose (or malt sugar) is a glucose (also called is an intermediate in the polysaccharides dextrose), intestinal digestion that is made by fructose/levulose or fruit animals sugar and galactose CELLULOSE - (sugar in milk) arranged in such a way that hydrogen bonds link hydroxyl ❖ POLYSACCHARIDES groups of - polymers containing adjacent glucose numerous molecules to monosaccharides form insoluble ❖ DISACCHARIDES monomers fibrous sheets. - consists of two - 3 COMMON These sheets of monosaccharides that POLYSACCHARIDES: cellulose are the are chemically STARCH - chief basic combined storage form of components of - sugar used to sweeten carbohydrates in plants coffee is a plants and the disaccharides. It also most important 2. PROTEINS called a sucrose or table source of - Formally known as sugar carbohydrate in Polypeptides - Lactose is made up of a human nutrition - polymers of amino acids sugar called galactose GLYCOGEN - - made up of the elements and glucose composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, - Lactose = milk sugar alpha glucose nitrogen, and sulfur - When two glucose units. It differs - Proteins function as: Enzymes, molecules are from starch since Pigments and Steroid combined, maltose is glycogen shows hormones formed a higher degree of branching and  QUATERNARY STRUCTURE - Unsaturated fatty acid - is - some proteins consist more indicated when fatty acid has than one fold of polypeptides more than one double bond LIPIDS - chief concentrated storage form of energy forming about 3.5 % of the cell content - organic substances relatively insoluble in water but soluble LEVEL OF STRUCTURES on organic solvents (alcohol) - water insoluble molecules PRIMARY STRUCTURE (hydrophobic) that are 2. Triglycerides - refers to the amino acid composed of carbon, hydrogen - most abundant of the lipids are sequence that makes up a and oxygen the fats and oils protein - FUNCTIONS: Storing energy, Waterproof Barriers, Chemical Changes, and Insolution COMMON LIPIDS 1. Fatty acids 3. Steroids - carboxylic acids (or organic - another class of lipids whose acids), usually with long molecules are composed of SECONDARY STRUCTURE aliphatic tails (long chains), fused rings of atoms - refers to a pattern formed by either unsaturated or saturated - The most important steroid is certain portions of an amino - Saturated acids - Lack of cholesterol acid sequence carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that the fatty acid is TERTIARY STRUCTURE saturated - describes the three-dimensional structure of proteins  - The monomer of nucleic acids are nucleotides - contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus S1Q2L16 General Chemistry 1 Each nucleotides is composed of Lesson 16 - DESCRIBE THE 4. Waxes three principal components: PREPARATION OF SELECTED - lipids that come from the 1. 5-carbon pentose sugar ORGANIC COMPOUNDS combination of a long chain alcohol and a fatty acid (pentagon) 2. Phosphate group (circle) Organic compound 3. Nitrogenous base (rectangle) - Any of a large class of chemical compounds in which one or Two kinds of nucleic acids more atoms of carbon are 1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) covalently linked to atoms of - found mainly in the cell other elements, most commonly nuclei contains the hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen genetic information that codes for the sequences Friedrich Wöhler of amino acids in - Working in Berlin in 1828, proteins Wöhler mixed two salts (silver NUCLEIC ACIDS 2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) cyanate and ammonium - the genetic material of the cell - found in the cell and chloride) in an attempt to make and are composed of recurring carries out the synthesis the inorganic substance monomeric units called of proteins ammonium cyanate nucleotides - he obtained a product that had the same molecular formula as  ammonium cyanate but was instead the well-known organic compound urea 8 methods of preparation of organic 1. Sublimation 2. Crystallization 3. Distillation 4. Fractional Distillation 5. Distillation under reduced pressure 6. Steam distillation 7. Chromatography 8. Differential extraction