S1 Interim Study Guide (2) PDF

30.a Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt Polytheism: the belief in many gods. Ziggurat: a rectangular stepped tower, often with a temple on top, found in ancient Mesopotamia. Cuneiform: a system of writing developed by the Sumerians, using wedge-shaped symbols. Hieroglyphics: the writing system of anci...

30.a Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt Polytheism: the belief in many gods. Ziggurat: a rectangular stepped tower, often with a temple on top, found in ancient Mesopotamia. Cuneiform: a system of writing developed by the Sumerians, using wedge-shaped symbols. Hieroglyphics: the writing system of ancient Egypt that used symbols and pictures. Pharaoh: the title used for ancient Egyptian rulers, considered both a king and a god. Mesopotamia is often referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization." The Neolithic Revolution began around 10,000 BCE, leading to the rise of agriculture. The Sumerians are credited with the invention of cuneiform around 3200 BCE. The Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed around 2580-2560 BCE. The Babylonian Empire was established around 1894 BCE under King Hammurabi. 30.b India and China Hinduism: A major religion originating in India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and a multitude of gods. Confucianism: A philosophical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing morality and social relationships. Silk Road: An ancient trade route that connected China with the West, facilitating the exchange of goods and culture. Empire: A group of states or territories controlled by a single authority, often an emperor. Buddhism: A religion founded in India that emphasizes the path to enlightenment through meditation and ethical living. Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500-1900 BCE): An early civilization in India known for its advanced urban planning. Gupta Empire (c. 320-550 CE): A golden age of arts and sciences in India. Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE): A significant period in Chinese history marked by cultural and technological advancements. Silk Road Established (c. 130 BCE): Facilitated trade between China and the Mediterranean. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): Noted for its cultural achievements and exploration. 30.c Monotheism Monotheism: the belief in a single, all-powerful deity or god. Covenant: a formal agreement or promise between two parties, often used in a religious context to describe the relationship between God and humanity. Prophets: individuals regarded as messengers of God who convey divine messages or predictions about the future. Zoroastrianism: an ancient Persian religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster, centered on the duality of good and evil and the worship of one god, Ahura Mazda. Around 2000 BCE: The beginnings of monotheistic belief with Abraham. 1250 BCE: The Exodus led by Moses, highlighting the Hebrew covenant with God. 6th century BCE: Zoroastrianism gains prominence in Persia, influencing monotheistic thought. 586 BCE: The Babylonian Exile, which tests and strengthens Hebrew faith. 1st century CE: The spread of monotheistic beliefs through various cultures. 31.a Greek polis and Roman Republic Polis: A city-state in ancient Greece, often used to describe a community of citizens with their own government. Oligarchy: A form of government in which power is held by a small group of people, often distinguished by wealth, family ties, or military control. Democracy: A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives. Republic: A form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter," and is not the private concern or property of the rulers; representatives are elected to make decisions on behalf of the citizens. Autocracy: A system of government in which one person has absolute power and authority, often without the consent of the governed. The Greek polis emerged around the 8th century BCE. Athens was known for its democratic government. Sparta was governed by a military oligarchy. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE. The Roman Empire began in 27 BCE under Augustus. 31.b Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Augustus Caesar Polis: A city-state in ancient Greece, often used to describe a community of citizens with their own government. Oligarchy: A form of government in which power is held by a small group of people, often distinguished by wealth, family ties, or military control. Democracy: A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives. Republic: A form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter," and is not the private concern or property of the rulers; representatives are elected to make decisions on behalf of the citizens. Autocracy: A system of government in which one person has absolute power and authority, often without the consent of the governed. Socrates (470-399 BCE): Developed the Socratic method, emphasizing dialogue and questioning. Plato (427-347 BCE): Founded the Academy in Athens, wrote "The Republic." Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Wrote extensively on various subjects, including ethics and politics. Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE): Conquered much of the known world by the age of 30. Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE): Assassinated in 44 BCE; pivotal in ending the Roman Republic. 31.c Greek (to include Hellenism) and Roman culture, politics, and technology Hellenism: A cultural and historical term referring to the spread of Greek culture, language, and influence that began after the conquests of Alexander the Great and shaped the development of the Mediterranean world. Democracy: A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives, allowing for participation and decision-making by the citizenry. Philosophy: The study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and the nature of reality; it involves critical thinking and reasoning to explore various perspectives and ideas. Infrastructure: The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, such as transportation systems, communication networks, and public services. Governance: The act or manner of governing a community or organization; it encompasses the processes, rules, and practices through which authority is exercised and decisions are made. 334-323 BCE: The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the spread of Hellenism. 507 BCE: The establishment of democracy in Athens. 27 BCE: The beginning of the Roman Empire with Augustus as the first emperor. 476 CE: The fall of the Western Roman Empire. 1453 CE: The fall of Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the influence of Greek and Roman culture. 31.f Collapse of the Western Roman Empire Corruption: The act of dishonest or unethical behavior, often involving the misuse of power for personal gain. Economic: Related to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, as well as the financial systems that govern them. Military: Pertaining to the armed forces and their activities, including defense, warfare, and maintaining national security. Invasion: An aggressive entrance into a territory with the intent to conquer or occupy it, often involving military force. Decline: A gradual deterioration or decrease in quality, quantity, or strength, which can apply to economies, populations, or other systems. The Western Roman Empire officially fell in 476 AD. Corruption became rampant during the later years of the Empire, especially in the 3rd century. Economic troubles began in the 2nd century AD due to overspending on military campaigns. The Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD marked a significant defeat for Roman forces against the Visigoths. The sack of Rome by the Visigoths occurred in 410 AD. 51.a Maurya and Gupta Empires Civilization: A complex human society characterized by the development of cities, social classes, and a system of governance, along with advancements in culture, technology, and trade. Empire: A large political unit or state that rules over a vast territory or multiple nations, typically led by a single authority or emperor, often through conquest or colonization. Unification: The process of bringing together different groups, regions, or states into a single entity or organization, often to promote stability, cooperation, and shared governance. Golden Age: A period in a civilization's history marked by great achievements in arts, culture, science, and economic prosperity, often resulting in significant advancements and a flourishing society. 322 BCE: Founding of the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya 268-232 BCE: Reign of Emperor Asoka, known for promoting Buddhism 185 BCE: Decline of the Maurya Empire 320 CE: Emergence of the Gupta Empire 6th century CE: Decline of the Gupta Empire due to invasions and internal conflicts 51.b Chinese civilization under Zhou, Qin, and Han Mandate of Heaven: The belief that a ruler's authority comes from a divine source, justifying their right to govern. It is often used to explain the rise and fall of dynasties in Chinese history. Confucianism: A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing moral integrity, social harmony, and the importance of family and respect for elders. Legalism: A strict philosophical approach to governance that emphasizes law, order, and discipline, asserting that human nature is inherently selfish and requires strict control. Bureaucracy: A system of government or management characterized by specialized departments and officials, making decisions based on rules and procedures rather than individual discretion. Dynastic Cycle: The historical pattern of the rise, decline, and replacement of dynasties in China, illustrating how dynasties gain power, become corrupt, and eventually fall from power.  The Zhou dynasty ruled from approximately 1046 to 256 BCE. The Qin dynasty unified China in 221 BCE. The Han dynasty lasted from 206 BCE to 220 CE. The Mandate of Heaven was first introduced during the Zhou dynasty. The civil service examination system was established during the Qin dynasty. 51.c Hinduism and Buddhism on India (to include Aryan migration and the caste system) and Confucianism on China Caste System: A hierarchical social structure in India, dividing people into different groups. Aryan Migration: The movement of the Aryan people into the Indian subcontinent, introducing Vedic culture. Buddhism: A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) that emphasizes the path to enlightenment. Confucianism: A philosophical system based on the teachings of Confucius, focusing on ethics and morality. Reform: To make changes in order to improve something, often in a social or political context. 1500 BCE: Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent. 1500-500 BCE: Formation of the Vedic texts, establishing key Hindu beliefs. 5th Century BCE: Emergence of Buddhism as a reform movement against Hindu practices. 551-479 BCE: Life of Confucius, whose teachings would form the basis of Confucianism in China. 200 BCE - 200 CE: Spread of Buddhism across Asia, influencing various cultures. 51.d How geography contributed to the movement of people and ideas include: Silk Roads and Indian Ocean Trade Trade Routes: Pathways or networks used for the transportation of goods and services between different regions or countries. Cultural Exchange: The process by which different cultures share ideas, traditions, and customs, often resulting in mutual influence and enrichment. Geography: The study of the Earth's landscapes, environments, and the relationships between people and their environments. Silk Road: An ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West, facilitating the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas, particularly known for the trade of silk. Indian Ocean Trade Routes: A series of maritime pathways that connected the regions surrounding the Indian Ocean, allowing for the exchange of goods and cultural interactions between Africa, the Middle East, and Asia around 1000 CE. The Silk Road was established around 130 B.C.E. The Indian Ocean Trade reached its peak between the 8th and 15th centuries. Buddhism spread to China via the Silk Road in the 1st century C.E. The rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century expanded Silk Road trade. The introduction of the monsoon winds enhanced Indian Ocean trade routes. 32.a Roman and Byzantine Empires Codification: The process of arranging and systematizing laws, rules, or principles into a coherent code or structure. Centralized: The concentration of control or authority in a single location or organization, often leading to uniformity in decision-making processes. Heritage: The traditions, values, and cultural elements that are passed down through generations, reflecting the history and identity of a group or society. Influences: Factors or forces that have the ability to affect or change someone or something, particularly in terms of ideas, behaviors, and cultural practices. Architecture: The art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures, encompassing aesthetic, functional, and cultural considerations. 27 BC: Establishment of the Roman Empire. 476 AD: Fall of the Western Roman Empire. 527-565 AD: Reign of Justinian I. 532 AD: Construction of Hagia Sophia begins. 1054 AD: Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. 32.c Great Schism of 1054 CE Schism: A division or split, particularly in a religious context, where a group breaks away from a larger body due to differences in beliefs or practices. Excommunication: The act of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church, often as a form of punishment for heresy or dissent. Theological: Relating to the study of God and religious beliefs; it often involves the analysis of religious texts, doctrines, and practices. Patriarch of the Church: A title given to certain high-ranking bishops in some Christian denominations, who hold authority over other bishops and are often seen as leaders within their religious communities. Centralized: Referring to a system of organization where decision-making and authority are concentrated in a single central location or governing body, often leading to uniformity in practices and beliefs. The Great Schism occurred in 1054. The Pope was the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The Patriarch was the leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Disputes over icons and the filioque clause contributed to the schism. Political tensions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire intensified the divide. 32.d Fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE Byzantine Empire: The eastern half of the Roman Empire that continued to exist after the fall of Rome, known for its rich culture, art, and significant influence on religion and politics. Constantinople: The capital city of the Byzantine Empire, strategically located between Europe and Asia, and known for its impressive walls and architecture, including the Hagia Sophia. Ottoman Turks: A powerful group that rose to prominence in the late 13th century, they eventually conquered the Byzantine Empire and established the Ottoman Empire, greatly impacting the region's culture and politics. Decline of the Byzantine Empire: The gradual weakening of the Byzantine Empire due to internal strife, economic difficulties, and external pressures, leading to its eventual fall in 1453. Invasion of Constantinople: The military siege and subsequent capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and a significant turning point in history. The Byzantine Empire lasted for over a thousand years, from 330 CE to 1453 CE. Constantinople was established as the capital of the Byzantine Empire in 330 CE. The Fall of Constantinople occurred on May 29, 1453. The Ottoman Empire was founded in the late 13th century and expanded rapidly in the 14th and 15th centuries. The conquest of Constantinople marked the end of the Middle Ages in Europe. 32.e Mongols and Marco Polo Nomadic: Relating to a lifestyle characterized by moving from place to place rather than settling permanently in one location. Nomadic people often migrate in search of food, resources, or grazing land for livestock. Conquest: The act of gaining control over a territory or people, often through military force. Conquests can lead to the establishment of new empires and changes in governance and culture. Trade: The exchange of goods and services between people or groups, which can occur locally or internationally. Trade is essential for economic development and cultural exchange. Silk Roads: A network of ancient trade routes that connected the East and West, facilitating not only the exchange of silk and other goods but also the spread of ideas, culture, and technology. Empire: A large political unit or state that governs a vast territory and diverse populations, often formed through conquests and expansion. Empires wield significant influence and power over their regions. Chinggis Khan was born in 1162 and united the Mongol tribes by 1206. The Mongol Empire reached its peak in the 13th century, becoming the largest contiguous empire in history. The Silk Roads were revitalized during the Mongol rule, facilitating trade routes across Asia and Europe. Marco Polo traveled to the Mongol Empire in the late 13th century and documented his experiences in "The Travels of Marco Polo." The Mongols ruled China as the Yuan Dynasty from 1271 to 1368. 33.a Origins and Growth of the Islamic Empire (600-1300 CE) Caliphate: A form of Islamic government led by a caliph, a religious and political leader. Ummah: The collective community of Muslims worldwide. Sahabah: Companions of the Prophet Muhammad who spread his teachings. Jihad: Often misunderstood, it refers to the struggle for a good cause, including personal spiritual development. 570 CE: Birth of Prophet Muhammad in Mecca. 610 CE: Muhammad receives his first revelation from Allah.  622 CE: Muhammad and followers migrate to Medina (Hijra), marking the start of the Islamic calendar. 632 CE: Death of Muhammad; the spread of Islam begins. 661 CE: Establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate, further expanding the empire. 33.c Muslim trade routes to India, China, Europe and Africa Trade Routes: Pathways or networks used for the exchange of goods and services between different regions or countries. Ethnic Enclaves: Communities or neighborhoods where a specific ethnic group resides, often maintaining their cultural traditions and customs. Prosperity: A state of flourishing, success, or wealth, often associated with economic stability and growth. Cultural Exchange: The process by which different cultures share ideas, customs, and traditions, leading to mutual understanding and enrichment. Merchants: Individuals or businesses engaged in the buying and selling of goods, often traveling to different locations to trade. The Trans-Saharan trade route connected North Africa with sub-Saharan Africa from the 8th century onwards. The Indian Ocean trade route flourished between the 7th and 15th centuries, linking East Africa to Asia. The introduction of Islam in Southeast Asia began in the 13th century due to trade interactions. The establishment of the Swahili city-states along the East African coast during the 11th century facilitated trade with the Middle East and India. The spread of the Arabic language and Islamic culture in trading cities created lasting impacts on local societies. 33.e relationship among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Covenant: a formal agreement or promise between God and a group of people, often involving commitments or obligations. Messiah: a savior or liberator figure in religious traditions, believed to bring redemption or salvation. Prophet: a person chosen by God to deliver messages or prophecies, often providing guidance or warnings to people. Scripture: sacred writings or texts considered authoritative in a religious tradition, often containing teachings, laws, and narratives.  Judaism was founded around 2000 BCE. Christianity began in the 1st century CE. Islam was founded in the 7th century CE. The Torah is the central reference of the religious Judaic tradition. The Bible, which includes the Old and New Testaments, is the holy scripture of Christianity.