Children and Family Concepts PDF

1-16-24 Children and Family Concepts Why Study Children and Families? ​ Essential for understanding how relationships shape development and rehabilitation outcomes. ​ Families play a central role in supporting children’s growth, especially in overcoming challenges related to health...

1-16-24 Children and Family Concepts Why Study Children and Families? ​ Essential for understanding how relationships shape development and rehabilitation outcomes. ​ Families play a central role in supporting children’s growth, especially in overcoming challenges related to health or trauma. ​ Understand diverse family structures and dynamics that influence care. Key Definitions ​ Family: A social unit connected by biological, legal, or emotional bonds. Families provide emotional, financial, and social support to their members. ​ Childhood: The critical development period from birth to adolescence, is characterized by rapid physical, emotional, and cognitive changes. ​ Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual’s abilities and participation in life after illness or injury. The Family System ​ Families are interconnected systems where the actions of one member influence the whole unit. Important concepts include: ○​ Roles: Expected behaviors within a family. ​ Influenced by culture (mostly) ○​ Boundaries: Rules that define relationships and responsibilities ○​ Communication Patterns: The ways family members interact and express needs. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for effective intervention. Children in Rehabilitation Settings ​ Children’s developmental needs must guide rehabilitation plans. Professionals should: ○​ Use age-appropriate communication. ○​ Provide resources that align with developmental stages. Cultural Variations in Families ​ Cultural norms shape family roles, structures, and decision-making. For example: ○​ Nuclear Families: Predominant in individualistic societies like the US. ​ Ex: Moving out when your 18 ​ Ex: Made fun of for living with your family at 30 years old. ○​ Extended Families: Common in collectivist cultures, emphasizing intergenerational support. Rehabilitation professionals must consider cultural differences when designing interventions to meet diverse needs. ​ Ex: Moving out being a shame ​ Family-Centered Care  ​ Family-centered care emphasizes collaboration between families and professionals. Key principles include: ○​ Respecting family expertise about their child’s needs. ○​ Sharing information transparently. (being honest and open) ○​ Empowering families to make decisions. This approach improves by fostering trust and mutual understanding. Foundational Theories ​ Attachment Theory (Bowlby): Secure attachments foster emotional stability and resilience. ​ Ecological Systems Theory (Brofenbrenner): Development is influenced by multiple environmental systems. ​ Family Systems Theory: Families function as interconnected units, where each member impacts the others. These theories provide frameworks for understanding complex dynamics. Family Challenges in Rehabilitation ​ Diverse Needs: Balancing the individual needs of each member. ​ Healthcare Systems: Navigating insurance and medical services. ​ Caregiver Burnout: Emotional and physical strain on primary caregivers. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) ​ ACEs include traumatic events like abuse or neglect that occur before age 18. These experiences can: ○​ Increase the risk of chronic health conditions. ○​ Impact brain development ○​ Affect social and emotional well-being. ○​ Rehabilitation professionals play a critical role in mitigating these effects through trauma-informed care. 1-23-25 Chapter 1: An Introduction to At-risk Issues Definition of the term “At Risk” ​ We use the term at risk to denote a set of possible cause/effect dynamics that place an individual child or adolescent in danger of future negative events. ​ At risk designates a situation that is not necessarily current, but that can be anticipated in the absence of intervention. Who’s to blame? ​ “Adequate parental leaves, affordable child care, more accessible housing, increased employment opportunities, living wages, full funding of women, infants, and children (WIC) and Head Start initiatives, universal preschool, and accessible health care…” Vulnerable and Under-Served ​ Youth of Color: ○​ The US population is becoming more diverse. ​ Historical and contemporary marginalization ​ Racism and unequal opportunities ○​ Many of the conditions that predict negative outcomes for youth (e.g., poor living conditions, underfunded schools) are correlated with being a child of color. ​ Lesbian, Gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. ○​ Most LGBTQ youth experience stress associated with their sexual orientation: ​ Rejection by family and/or peers, society’s disapproval. ○​ Denial of same-sex attraction interferes with the ability to form healthy relationships critical to identity formation. ○​ Particularly vulnerable to alcohol, drug abuse, and depression, compared to heterosexual youth.  ​ Youth with Disabilities and Immigrant Youth ○​ Transculturation: Battling 2 cultures at once. ○​ This week’s Executive Order on birthright citizenship (NBC News) ​ “Legal experts warn that those whose parents are on work and student visas won’t be exempt…” ​ Two Parent rule ​ “...this is in direct violation of the Constitution and that the Supreme Court may not uphold it…” ​ “...certain countries don’t automatically give citizenship to those not born in the country - even for children born to parents who are citizens - meaning some kids might be temporarily stateless.” ​ Families seeking asylum/Refugees ​ “... could affect how desirable the U.S. looks to would-be immigrants from all over the world.” Cyber Technology ​ “Blessing and a curse…” ​ Pornography, child pornography, sexual solicitation, stalking, bullying, online harassment, body dysmorphia… The At-Risk Metaphor ​ The soil - the social environment ​ The roots - family, school, peer group ​ The trunk - a conduit for developing attitudes ​ The branches - specific at-risk categories ​ Foliage, fruit, and flowers - individual and specific young people ​ The gardener - us, the person ​ The Ecological Model ​ Individual human development does not occur in isolation, but within multiple, embedded ecological systems (Brofenbrenner). 5 systems ​ Individual: The person without social context (i.e., genetics, temperament, psychology, etc.) ​ In addition to the individual:  ○​ Microsystem:The people and communities with whom an individual comes into direct contact (e.g. family, classroom, little league team) ○​ Mesosystem: Interconnections between the different microsystems (e.g., communication between a teacher and a parent) ○​ Exosystem: Settings that do not directly involve the person, but which exert influence on the person ○​ Macrosystem (e.g., poverty, social norms, gender roles, cultural values) ​ Social blueprint (e.g., cultural values, belief systems, societal norms, gender-role socialization, race relations, etc.) ○​ Chronosystem (the sociohistorical circumstances and transitions that occur over an individual’s life): The development of interconnections between individuals and their environments over time. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Helper Interlace  ​ Counselors, human service workers, psychologists, teachers, and other helping professionals can incorporate into their practice prevention and intervention strategies 1-28-25 Chapter 2: Environmental & Societal Factors That Contribute to Risk Environmental/Societal Factors That Contribute to Risk ​ We are currently living in an age of economic, political, social, and technological change. ​ How are these factors currently influencing youth and families? ○​ Technology changes? ○​ Continued mobility of society? ○​ Outsourcing of jobs? ○​ Globally interdependent economy? The Economy ​ One major exosystemic influence on children’s lives is the economy. ​ Some economic trends include: ○​ Poverty ○​ Welfare reform ○​ The economic stagnation of the working poor ○​ Single Mothers ○​ Homeless families Poverty ​ Poverty is a risk factor most closely associated with family stress and highly correlated with school failure, “delinquency”, hunger, and health problems. ​ Nearly 1 in 3 children in the US will live in poverty at some point during their childhood. ​ Rural child poverty rates are higher than most urban children (26.2% vs. 21.6%) ​ Children of color are more likely to be poor “Social Toxicity” of Poverty ​ Children in poverty are at increased risk for: ○​ Exposure to violence ○​ Racism ○​ Unstable care arrangements ○​ Economic deprivation ○​ Community insecurity ​ “By-products” of these toxins include academic failure, learning disabilities, and child abuse. Poverty as a Predictor of Future Poverty Being poor at birth is a marker of future poverty ↓ Over 30% of white children and nearly 70% of black children who are poor at birth will spend at least half of their childhood in poverty. Stagnation of the Working Poor ​ Work alone is not sufficient to avoid poverty. ​ The economic problems faced by working poor families influence a child’s development through parental attitude, disposition, and behavior. Parental Impacts of Financial Insecurity ​ Parents with financial stress or facing unemployment: ○​ Are more irritable and more likely to use arbitrary and punitive child discipline ○​ Are more anxious, depressed and hostile ○​ Have a higher incidence of suicide ○​ Consume more alcohol. …than parents who are employed and not under financial stress. Families of Color ​ Hardest hit during the recession ○​ Experienced a disproportionate share of income and job loss ​ Exacerbated by loss of employment opportunities ○​ Shift of manufacturing employment to outlying areas and outsourcing to other countries ○​ Overrepresented in blue-collar jobs that are most at risk during economic downturn Young Single Mother Families ​ Young, female-headed families are at the greatest risk of poverty and co-occurring problems ​ Babies born to teen mothers are at higher risk of being born pre-term and with low birth weight Homeless Families ​ Homelessness has always been a major issue facing families, and it is increasing. ○​ School-age children and independent homeless youth represent the fastest-growing population of homeless individuals in the US. US Conference of Mayors (2014) ​ Lack of affordable housing was the most commonly cited cause of homelessness. On average, families with children represented 40% of the homeless population. ​ Families had to wait an average of 2 years for public housing assistance. Ennui - A Problem for All Incomes ​ Ennui refers to an emotional state of dissatisfaction and boredom from connectedness and a lack of life purpose.  ​ Children from affluent families may have material “things” but lack discipline, support, and connection. ○​ “Affluenza” Social Comparison ​ Gap between rich and poor is increasing ​ People at the lower end of this continuum often feel ashamed and angry. What’s Needed? ​ A few policy proposals: ○​ Childcare ○​ Comprehensive preschool programs (subsidized) ○​ Before- and after- school educational centers ○​ Empowerment ○​ Community/neighborhood involvement Empowerment ​ …the process by which people, organizations, or groups who are powerless or marginalized: ○​ (a) become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life context ○​ (b) develop the skills and capacity for gaining some reasonable control over their lives ○​ (c) exercise that control ○​ (d) refrain from infringing upon the rights of others ○​ (e) at the same time support the empowerment of others in their community. Ways Helping Professionals Violate Others: 1.​ “I am the human service worker, counselor, doctor, speech therapist…I know what you need and what is best for you.” 2.​ “You don’t really feel that way; I know how you feel.” 3.​ “You have an overactive imagination.” 4.​ “Support groups don’t work; let me help you.” 5.​ “We don’t need to talk about that.” 6.​ “You don’t know what you’re talking about.” 7.​ “If you want my help, we’ll do it my way.” 8.​ “I went to school to study this, so just trust me.” ​ All these comments (and others) state, “I’m the authority, don’t question my ideas, power, methods, motives or values.” Critical Consciousness “Awareness of the power dynamics that affect a person’s life ecology, and critical self-reflection or understanding the person’s own contribution to that ecology”  ​ Analysis of power dynamics can focus on a variety of issues: ○​ Family systems ○​ School and community factors ○​ Local/national government policies ○​ Racism/sexism/homophobia ​ The key is to help individuals understand how these issues affect them as individuals and as members of a community. ​ Fostering critical consciousness helps young people and other family members: ○​ Identify social influences ○​ Decide what they are and are not able to change or control ○​ Initiate desirable changes in their lives ○​ How? Cultivate social skills, self regulation skills, decision making and assertiveness training, relaxation techniques, internet savvy, etc. 1-30-25 Chapter 3: Family Problems of At-Risk Children and Youth The Family Life Cycle The Family System ​ The family is a system consisting of connected components (family members) organized around various functions that interact to maintain balance and a stage of equilibrium ​ Family as a Homeostatic System ​ Each family member contributes to this equilibrium or homeostatic balance. ○​ Systematic patterns of behavior… ​ Homeostatic systems can be closed or open  Types of Closed Families ​ A closed system is dysfunctional because it is isolated from the environment, and is less receptive to external stimuli and change. ​ Detached families ○​ Individual members function separately and autonomously with little family interdependence. ​ Enmeshed families ○​ Family members are overly involved and overly concerned with each others’ lives. Cultural Variations ​ This is essential to consider when applying these concepts to other cultures… Parenting Issues ​ Four dimensions of child rearing ○​ Permissiveness/restrictiveness ○​ Hostility/ warmth ○​ Anxious, emotional involvement/calm detachment ○​ Inconsistency/consistency Control High ←—------------------→Low Restrictive Permissive ​ Many rules and strict enforcement in ​ Few rules or restraints most areas​ ​ ​ ​ Little concern about impulses, manners, ​ Emphasis on obedience, manners, obedience, or noise boundaries ​ ​ ​ ​ Intolerance of noise and aggression toward peers, siblings and parents Support High ←—------------------→Low Warmth Hostility ​ Understanding ​ Considerable disapproval and ​ Responsiveness punishment ​ Praise ​ Little to no understanding, ​ Little Punishment acceptance,affection, or praise ​ Acceptance  ​ Affection ​ Involvement Anxiety High ←—------------------→Low Anxious Emotional Involvement Calm Detachment ​ Considerable emotion related to child ​ Considerable emotion related to child ​ Protectiveness, “babying” ​ Protectiveness, “babying” Consistency High ←—------------------→Low Consistent Inconsistent ​ Stable and predictable rules ​ Rules change without notice ​ Predictable rewards and punishments ​ Unpredictable consequences ​ Steady follow-through ​ Erratic discipline ​ Sporadic follow-through Stress Within Families ​ Divorced and Single Parent Families ​ Blended Families ​ Latchkey Families ​ Families of LGBTQ Youth Single Parent Famililes ​ Children born to unmarried mother has risen dramatically – increasing from 5% in 1960 to 14% (Taylor 2011) ​ Children living in single-family homes are at risk for more internalized problems ○​ Girls vs. Boys Blended Families ​ Remarried partners bring children into the new relationship ​ Children face a new set of expectations, procedures, and interactions. ​ The new family must negotiate two “life stages” at one time - the establishment stage and parenting stage Latchkey Families ​ When one or more children are home alone before or after school and on school holidays ​ Research has found a direct relationship between the number of hours spend without supervision after school and problem behaviors… ○​ Accidents ○​ Unsupervised internet use ○​ Other risky behaviors ​ Violent youth crime is most common between 3:00pm and 6:00pm Families of LGBTQ Youth ​ Significant number of LGBTQ young people are rejected by their familes ​ Lack of support at home usually leads to other problems: ○​ Homelessness (if thrown out, or run away) ○​ Substance use. ○​ Dropping out ○​ Sex work 2-4-25 Chapter 3: (continued) Families Experiencing Substance Abuse ​ Children of parents using substances are at risk for neglect and abuse. ​ Children are at high risk for: ○​ Emotional and social adjustment problems ○​ Hyperactivity ○​ Relationship difficulties ○​ Aggression ○​ Depression ○​ Drug use Families and Incarceration ​ Incarceration not only impacts bonds between family members, but it also puts many children at risk for other difficult situations, such as poverty and single parenting Parental Psychopathology ​ Parents mental illness disturbs parent-child interactions, which can lead to limited cognitive, emotional, and social development in the child. ○​ Schizophrenia ○​ Bipolar disorders ○​ Depression Domestic Violence  ​ Overlapping factors: ○​ Interpersonal violence associated with substance abuse ○​ Violence between spouses is often accompanied by violence toward children. ○​ Parent substance use associated with child neglect and physical abuse And the Cycle Continues… ​ Child abuse and family violence increases a child’s risk of: ○​ Stress disorder ○​ Psychological disturbance ○​ Future violent and abusive behavior ○​ Teenage pregnancy ○​ Sexual victimization and dating violence Chapter 4: School Issues that Relate to At-Risk Children and Youth The Value of Education ​ There are a number of indicators of the value placed on education in the United States ○​ In 2000 the average household income was about $55,000; in 2010 teachers’ salaries were less than $54,000. ○​ Schoolteachers and counselors continue to be paid less than the national average income. ​ There is currently a shortage of teachers in the United States. Why? ○​ Many states are lowering teacher standards with many new teachers not meeting state licensing requirements. ○​ More affluent schools attract better teacher; the richest school districts in the United States spend 56% more per student than the poorest schools. ○​ Behavioral concerns ​ In the 1990s, states spent more on prisons than on education ○​ In California there was a 209% increase in prison funding but only a 15% increase in state university funding. ​ If schools do not provide a safety net for children, health and well-being are reduced. PISA Study ​ Program on International Student Assessment (PISA) compared US teens to those in 27 industrialized nations. ​ American 15-year-olds were close to the international averages in reading, math, and science Uncomfortable Truths ​ The United States runs separate and unequal schools and neighborhoods. ○​ Poor conditions of the schools and neighborhoods for children in poverty and those of color. ○​ Violence, drugs, unequal school funding, uncertified teachers, and institutionalized racism in the schools that serve these children. Effective Schools ​ Elements of effective schools include: ○​ Leadership Behaviors ○​ Academic Emphasis ​ Making sure students have what they need to succeed academically. ​ Tutoring, books, supplies, SAT preps, College Guidance, etc. ○​ Teacher and Staff Factors ○​ Student Involvement ​ Extracurriculars ○​ Community Support ○​ Social Capital School Culture ​ School culture: ○​ Provides a set of rules, expectations, and norms ○​ Enhances (or decreases) a student’s self-esteem through shared values, beliefs, and rituals Student Climate ​ Peers provide students an opportunity to develop interpersonal skills ​ Overall belonging to a group is a positive factor. ○​ Students with more friends at school feel more connected to their schools and generally have fewer problems. Climate and Student Grouping ​ Students who succeed in school have high expectations of themselves and a strong, positive sense of belonging to the school community. ○​ Students who are at risk for school failure are often placed in lower-ability groups and excluded from the academic success community. ○​ Special education… Peer Involvement ​ Prevention, counseling, and treatment of teens should focus not only on individual problems but also on the peer group itself. ○​ Often a teen receives treatment away from peers and then quickly regresses into past behaviors when reconnected with a deviant peer group. Teacher Climate ​ Factors creating positive teacher climates include: ○​ Consistent and focused meetings with teachers and support staff. ○​ Shared decision-making and leadership organized around shared values, commitments, and beliefs. ○​ Increased teacher empowerment, particularly with regard to curriculum. Positive Behavior Support ​ Combines a system that supports teacher behavior with data that supports effective decisions and practice that supports student behavior ​ Main focus: to change individual behavior by changing the context in which behavior occurs. Classroom Structure ​ An environment in which students are treated as individuals who are contributors to the group yields positive results. ​ There is also evidence that small classes in grades K-3 improve high school graduation rates. School Choice ​ This has been offered as a solution to poor quality schools. ​ However, it has been criticized on the grounds that it will reinforce and replicate inequities for ethnic minorities and students from lower socioeconomic classes. Charter Schools ​ Charter schools have the freedom to be innovative and the source of good ideas. ​ It is difficult to measure their effectiveness as they vary greatly in their characteristics. 2-6-25 Chapter 4 (continued) Curriculum Issues ​ A curriculum that ignores moral education, the development of social skills, student dialogue, and critical thinking does not help at-risk students. ​ Assessment of student learning should go beyond standardized test scores. ​ Education should also be connected to the world of work to help at-risk students ​ Bilingual education is also important for many at-risk students Education Structure: Innovations ​ The Internet ○​ The internet provides both an interesting curricular issue and contributes to an innovative educational structure ○​ While internet use can be positive, it also raises questions What Can We Do? ​ Promote practices that emphasize the entirety od student’s learning and development ​ Increase collaborative efforts ​ Promote student empowerment ○​ Flipped classroom ​ Raise public awareness about the value of extended support for youth at risk Chapter 5: Individual Characteristics of High and Low-Risk Children and Youth Resiliency ​ Resiliency is the capacity to adapt and function successfully despite chronic stress and adversity ↓ ​ Resilience is not a static trait, but is influenced by both internal and environmental factors ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ↓ ​ The development of resiliency is related to three areas: ○​ Social Environment ○​ Family Milieu ○​ Individual Characteristics of Resilient Youth Social Environment ​ Social environment includes the child’s family, school, community, and kinship network ​ When social support is low in one setting (such as the family) persons in other settings can compensate by providing assistance ​ Caring relationships increase resiliency ○​ They provide emotional support, encouragement, and advice. Family Milieu ​ Family factors influencing resiliency include: ○​ Effective parenting strategies (well-balanced discipline, etc.) ○​ Parental support and involvement ○​ Healthy communication patterns ○​ Parental monitoring ○​ Positive parent-child relationships Individual Characteristics ​ Proactive problem-solving and constructive perceptions of problems (optimism) ​ Ability to form positive relationships ​ A vision of a positive and meaningful life ​ Ability to be alert and autonomous ​ Social, school, and cognitive competency ​ An internal locus of control, impulse control, reflectiveness, and positive self-regard. ​ Sense of humor, ability to delay gratification, and a future orientation The 5 Cs of Competency To distinguish between high & low risk youth 1.​ Critical School Competencies a.​ Basic Academic Skills  i.​ Numeracy ii.​ Literacy b.​ Academic Survival Skills i.​ Work Habits ii.​ Attending to tasks iii.​ Following directions c.​ Peer Relationships 2.​ Concept of Self, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy a.​ Concept of self: perception of self in a variety of areas – academic, physical, social, etc. i.​ (Think of this as cognitive thinking) b.​ Self-esteem: evaluation of these perceptions relative to others i.​ (Think of this as affective – feeling) c.​ Self-Efficacy 3.​ Connectedness a.​ Communication With Others i.​ Formal and informal settings – e.g., talking to a teacher, talking to friends ii.​ Ability to join/leave groups of others iii.​ Ending a conversation iv.​ Humor v.​ Interaction flexibility b.​ Perspective Taking i.​ Empathy c.​ Solving Relationship Problems i.​ Relationship skills 4.​ Coping Ability a.​ Whether a person views problems as “challenges” or as unsolvable issues b.​ Learned resourcefulness c.​ Counteracting compulsiveness, impulsivity, withdrawing, etc. 5.​ Control a.​ Decision Making Skills b.​ Delay of Gratification c.​ Purpose in Life (educational, job/career related, and life goals) First Construct ​ Open, honest nurturing relationships between adults and young people who are at risk are essential to effective interventions Second Construct ​ Faulty, negative, and self defeating thought patterns that perpetuate risky behavior must be the focus of intervention Third Construct ​ The "syndrome of negative affect": Emotional issues typically accompany risky behavior.