Revision Notes on Grammar (PDF)

REVISION 1) Modal verbs: SHOULD(N’T): - If you feel sick, you should go to the doctor. - That seems green, you shouldn’t eat it. MUST(N’T): - I was so drunk, I must have done something stupid. - You mustn’t play videogames all day if you want to pass this exam. C...

REVISION 1) Modal verbs: SHOULD(N’T): - If you feel sick, you should go to the doctor. - That seems green, you shouldn’t eat it. MUST(N’T): - I was so drunk, I must have done something stupid. - You mustn’t play videogames all day if you want to pass this exam. COULD(N’T): - He could have gone to the supermarket. - She couldn’t have been at the party last night, because she was in my house. CAN’T: - They can’t have passed the exam, they didn’t study at all. MIGHT: - She might love cats, she has a pencil case with a lot of drawings of them. MAY: - He may have studied, he passed the test. 2) Relative clauses: DEFINING: are the ones that contain information that it’s important to understand the phrase. - We don’t often see the people who live across the hall. NON-DEFINING: are the ones that have extra information that can be removed. - Robert Downey Jr., who played Iron Man, was in jail. 3) 1st conditional: IF + 웃 + PRESENT SIMPLE + , + 웃 + WILL + PRESENT if clause consequence - If he does his homework, he will pass. 웃 + WILL + PRESENT + IF + 웃 + PRESENT SIMPLE consequence if clause - She will be tired if she works out all week. 4) 2nd conditional: IF + 웃 + PAST SIMPLE + , + 웃 + WOULD(N’T) + MAIN VERB - If I died tomorrow, I would want to restart my life as a butterfly. 5) 3rd conditional: IF + 웃 + PAST PERFECT + , + 웃 + WOULD(N’T) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE  - If I had gone home earlier, I would have seen my boyfriend cheating on me. 6) Wish/If only: IF ONLY + 웃 + PAST SIMPLE → If only I putted more attention in class. 웃 + WISH + 웃 + PAST SIMPLE → I wish he was happier. 7) Reported speech: 8) Had better (not): 웃 + HAD BETTER (NOT) + PRESENT - You had better do your laundry before I get home. - I’d better not make a mess or my mum will get angry at me. 9) Used to: 웃 + USED TO + PRESENT - I used to get up at 6 o’clock 1) Modal Verbs: Usage and Meaning SHOULD/SHOULDN'T: Expresses advice or obligation. Used for recommendations and suggesting what is appropriate. MUST/MUSTN'T: Expresses strong obligation or prohibition. "Must" indicates necessity or strong inference. "Mustn't" expresses a prohibition. COULD/COULDN'T: Expresses possibility or impossibility in the past. "Could" indicates past possibility, while "couldn't" indicates past impossibility. Implies a hypothetical or potential action in the past. CAN'T: Expresses strong impossibility or certainty that something didn't happen. Implies a very strong contradiction or negation. MIGHT/MAY: Expresses possibility in the past or present. Implies a lesser degree of certainty than "must" but more than "could." 2) Relative Clauses Relative clauses modify nouns or pronouns. They provide additional information about the noun or pronoun they modify. They begin with relative pronouns (e.g., who, whom, whose, which, that) or relative adverbs (where, when). Relative clauses can be either defining or non-defining. Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without them, the sentence's meaning is incomplete or unclear. They restrict the noun's referent. They are not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Example: The dog that chased the cat is barking. (This specifies which dog is being discussed) Non-defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses provide extra information about the noun or pronoun. They are not essential to the sentence's meaning. The sentence makes sense even without them. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Example: The dog, which chased the cat, is barking. (This mentions a detail about the dog, but the sentence is not altered in meaning if this part were removed) Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They connect the clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. Common relative pronouns include: ○ who (people) ○ whom (people - object of the verb or preposition) ○ whose (possession) ○ which (things) ○ that (people or things) Note: 'That' can be used for both defining and non-defining clauses, though 'which' is often favoured for non-defining relative clauses regarding things. Punctuation in Relative Clauses Defining clauses: No commas. Non-defining clauses: Commas are crucial for setting the clause apart. Common Errors in Relative Clauses Incorrect use of commas: A common error is not using commas around non-defining clauses. Incorrect choice of relative pronoun: Using "who" for things or "which" for people is a frequent mistake. Thinking about whether the relative clause is describing a person or thing is important. Choosing "who(m)" versus "that" can be confused, especially with defining relative clauses for people. Omitting necessary relative pronouns: Forgetting a relative pronoun can damage the structure and meaning of the clause. Confusing defining and non-defining clauses: Understanding when a clause is essential to meaning and when it isn't is critical. If the clause is needed to clarify or restrict the noun it refers to, it's defining. Problems with preposition placement: Placing a preposition at the end of a relative clause when it grammatically belongs earlier in the clause can affect the meaning. For example, "The house where I was born is no longer there." "The house I was born in is no longer there" is also grammatically sound. In cases where a pronoun serves as the object of a preposition, careful placement is vital. 3) 1st Conditional: Structure and Form  The first conditional expresses a possible future event and its probable result. It uses the present simple tense for the if-clause and the future simple tense (will + base verb) for the main clause. If-clause + comma + main clause Example: If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home. (If-clause: it rains; main clause: I will stay home) The if-clause can come first or second. Example: I will stay home if it rains tomorrow. (main clause: I will stay home; if-clause: if it rains tomorrow) Uses in Speaking Predicting likely outcomes based on certain conditions. Making suggestions or giving advice. Expressing warnings about the consequences of actions. Hypothetical situations that are considered likely to happen. Example: If you study hard, you will get good grades. (prediction/advice) Sentence Transformation Changing the order of clauses in the sentence while maintaining the same meaning. Example: If I have enough money, I will buy a new car. Transformation: I will buy a new car if I have enough money. Transformation: I will buy a new car unless I do not have enough money. Note: the conditional negative is often understood, not necessarily stated.* Negative Forms Two ways to form the negative in a first conditional sentence. ○ Using the negative form of the verb in the if-clause. Example: If it does not rain tomorrow, I will go to the park. ○ Using the word "won't" in the main clause. Example: If it rains tomorrow, I won't go to the park. Note: Both forms express the same idea of a potential negative outcome with a condition being unsatisfied. Common Mistakes Mixing tenses in the conditional. Using the wrong tense in either the if-clause or the main clause.  Confusion with other conditional forms (second, third). Failing to understand the logical connection between the condition and the result. (For example, if the condition is unlikely, the conditional should not be used). Omitting the comma between the if-clause and the main clause (this is a frequent mistake that changes the meaning subtly). 4) 2nd Conditional: Form and Structure The 2nd conditional describes unreal or improbable situations in the present or future. Form: If + past simple verb, [would/could/might] + base form of verb. Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a house. Note: "Were" is often used instead of "was" for the "if" clause when referring to I, he, she, or it, though "was" is grammatically correct in this situation. Common Mistakes Incorrect use of tense: Using present tense or future tense with "would". Focus on using past simple and "would/could/might" in the second clause. Confusing with real-life possibilities: Avoid using the 2nd conditional for likely or possible situations. Mixing it up with the 1st conditional: Crucial differentiation in the imagined scenario—a difference in likelihood. Forgetting the "would" or using "will" incorrectly. Comparison with 1st Conditional 1st Conditional: Expressed about real possibilities in the near future: if it rains, we will stay inside. 2nd Conditional: Presents an unreal or unlikely situation in the present or future. Key difference: Focus on the difference between potential/likely situations vs. hypothetical/unreal situations. 5) 3rd Conditional: Usage Examples The 3rd conditional describes a hypothetical situation in the past that did not happen. It expresses regret, or a sense of what might have been.  Example: "If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam." (The speaker didn't study, and as a result, didn't pass.) Form Structure If + past perfect verb (had + past participle), past perfect conditional verb (would + have + past participle) Examples: ○ If I had known you were coming, I would have cooked dinner. ○ If she had taken the train, she wouldn't have missed the meeting. ○ If they had arrived earlier, they would have caught the flight. Common Errors Incorrect use of past simple tense instead of past perfect in the 'if' clause. Omitting the 'have' before the past participle in the conditional clause. Using the present simple tense in the conditional clause instead of the past perfect conditional. Differences From Other Conditionals Contrast to 1st conditional: The 1st conditional talks about possible future events, while the 3rd conditional focuses on past events that didn't happen. Contrast to 2nd conditional: The 2nd conditional describes hypothetical situations in the present or future, unlike the 3rd conditional which describes impossible past situations. 6) Wish/If Only Expresses a desire for a different reality, often regretting a past action or present situation. Used to express a hypothetical or impossible situation. Usually associated with the past, present, or future. Grammar Usage Wish/If only + past simple: Used to express regret about present situations. Example: I wish I knew more about history.  Wish/If only + past perfect: Used to express regret about past situations. Example: I wish I hadn't missed the concert. 7) Reported Speech Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, is a way of expressing what someone else said without directly quoting them. It involves changing the original sentence's tense, pronouns, and other elements to fit the reporting context. The original statement or question needs to accurately reflect the speaker's intent. Conversion Rules The tense of the reported verb typically changes depending on the time frame of the original statement. If the original statement is about a past event, the tense of the reporting verb often changes to reflect this. Tense Changes Present Simple to Past Simple: "He says he likes cats." (Original: Present Simple) becomes "He said he liked cats." (Reported: Past Simple). Present Continuous to Past Continuous: "She's saying she's watching a movie." becomes "She said she was watching a movie." Past Simple to Past Perfect: "He said he went to the store." becomes "He said he had gone to the store." (If the action in the past was completed before another action in the past). Past Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous: "She said she was working when he called." becomes "She said she had been working when he called." (If the action in the past was ongoing). Present Perfect to Past Perfect: "He says he has finished." becomes "He said he had finished." Past Perfect to Past Perfect: "He said he had eaten." remains "He said that he had eaten." Future (will) to Conditional (would): "He says he will go tomorrow." becomes "He said he would go tomorrow." Future (going to) to Conditional (was/were going to): "She says she is going to the party." becomes "She said she was going to the party." Questions In Reported Speech Yes/No Questions: The auxiliary verb is placed before the subject and the question word "if" or "whether" is used: "Did you go?" becomes "He asked if/whether I had gone." Wh- Questions: The question word (who, what, when, where, why, how) is usually placed front and center and the tense changes apply as in other cases: "Where is the bakery?" becomes "She asked where the bakery was." Common Reporting Verbs Say: The most common way to introduce reported speech. "He said he was tired." Tell: Used when someone is addressed directly: "She told me her story." Ask: Used in cases of posed questions: "He asked me if I had seen the movie." Explain: "He explained that he was late." Inquire: "She inquired about the pricing." Comment: "He commented that the weather was nice." Suggest: "He suggested we go to the park." Advise: "She advised me to take the bus." Request: "He requested that we leave." Inform: "They informed me of the update." Warn: "He warned me about the dangers." Pronoun Changes in Reported Speech Pronouns need to reflect the reported statement's context. For example, "I am going" becomes "He said he was going." 8) Had Better (Not) - Usage in Advice "Had better" is a modal auxiliary verb that expresses strong advice or recommendation, often implying a sense of urgency or potential negative consequences if the advice isn't followed. The construction consists of the past perfect auxiliary "had" followed by the base form of the verb, forming the advice or suggestion. It's used to offer a strong suggestion or a warning about what is likely to happen. Negative Constructions  "Had better not" is the negative form, expressing a stronger prohibition or discouragement. It implies that a certain action would likely result in unwanted consequences. The negative form suggests a greater degree of caution or disapproval compared to other weaker expressions such as "shouldn't" or "it's best not to". Implications of Urgency The use of "had better" inherently suggests a sense of urgency or timeliness. It implies that the action should be taken immediately, or in the near future, as a missed opportunity could lead to undesirable results. It highlights the importance of the recommendation, implying that the action or inaction is crucial or will have a considerable impact. The urgency implied often arises from the context, e.g., potential dangers, missed deadlines, or unfavorable outcomes. "Had better" often carries a stronger sense of obligation or necessity than more formal suggestions. 9) Used to Indicates a habitual action or state in the past that is no longer true in the present. Implies a contrast between the past and the present. Forms a past tense, but describes a past habit, not a single completed action. Used to + infinitive verb (e.g., "used to play," "used to like") Often implies a sense of regret or nostalgia for the past habit. Past Habits Describes actions or states that were repeated in the past but are not happening now. Often refers to a regular or frequent activity. Can be expressed using various grammatical structures, including "used to" (see above), the simple past tense (e.g., "often went," "usually ate"), or the past continuous tense (e.g., "was always playing"). The choice of structure depends on the nuance and focus of the description. Affirmative Sentences  Express statements that are true. Examples: ○ "I used to play soccer every Saturday." ○ "She was always very kind." ○ "They usually went to the park on Sunday afternoons." Interrogative Forms Used to form questions. Forming questions using "used to": ○ "Did + subject + use to + verb?" (e.g., "Did you use to live in New York?") For actions in the past, also use the auxiliary verb "did" in the interrogative form of the simple past tense (e.g., "Did you live in Paris?'") Interrogative sentences seek to gather information about past actions, habits, or states and use auxiliary verbs to form the questions.