Reviewer-Prelim- Anaphy (2).pdf

Anaphy Questions Review 1.It explains how different body structures work together in particular region of the human body- functional anatomy or integrative anatomy 2. Tilting of the foot so the soles face into the midline- inversion 3. Decreases the angle between the segment and the proximal- flexion 4. Separates the anterior to posterior- frontal (coronal) plane 5. It refers to the increase in size in all parts of the organism- Growth 6. Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement and reproduction- Metabolism 7. The scientific discipline that deals with the process or functioning of living things- Physiology 8. Group of many similar cells that worked together to perform specific functions- Tissue 9. A closed loop structures in which results of the action of the system are fed into the system to control future action that affects the behavior- Feedback Loop 10. Refers to specific relationship of many individuals parts of an organism from cell organelles to organs, interacting and working together- biological organization or biological hierarchy 11.study of external features such as bony projection which serves as landmark for locating deeper structures- Surface anatomy 12. Focuses on the whole organ system- systemic anatomy. 13. Collection of cells which have similar structure - Tissue 14. Cells that are closely packed without any intercellular spaces - Epithelial Prang Pringles- cardiac Parang kahoy- skeletal 15. A type of connective tissue with many fibroblast and some fat cells, mast cells and macrophage separated by elastic and collagen fibers -loose aerolar connective tissue 16. A part of cartilage that are arrange in small group, known for its functionality and seen in long bones and framing the larynx and bronchi -Hyaline 16. Leukocytes know also as -white blood cell 17. Loose connective tissue designed to store fat -adipose tissue 18. Parang bread na may butas- simple epithelial tissue 19.Parang meat na may butas- stratified squamous 20.Most abundant tissue of the body , made up of fibroblast, fats, cells- connective tissue 21. A type of dense connective tissue that is capable to recoil can be found in trachea, bronchi and lungs- Elastic dense connective tissue 22. Study of tissue -Histology 23. Tissue- collection of cells which have similar structure Epithelial- cells that are closely packed without any intercellular spaces skeletal cardiac loose aerolar connective tissue - a type of connective tissue with many fibroblast and some fat cells, mast cells and macrophage separated by elastic and collagen fibers Hyaline- a part of cartilage that are arrange in small group, known for its functionality and seen in long bones and framing the larynx and bronchi White Blood Cell - leukocytes know also as Adipose Tissue- loose connective tissue designed to store fat simple epithelial tissue stratified squamous Areolar - most abundant tissue of the body , made up of fibroblast, fats, cells Elastic dense connective tissue - a type of dense connective tissue that is capable to recoil can be found in trachea, bronchi and lungs Histology- study of tissue urinary system- The organ system responsible for removing wastes from the blood and excreting them Prone- term describes a face-down orientation If you have pain in your forearm, which of the following regions appropriately describes the location of your pain? Answer: Antebrachium In anatomical position, the neck is ________ to the knees Answer: Superior- situated above or higher in relation to another part of the body In anatomical position, the wrist is ________ to the elbow. Please select all that apply. Answer: Distal- means farther from the point of attachment or origin X-ray- is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation capable of penetrating solids Computed tomography (CT) - is a noninvasive imaging technique that uses computers to analyze several cross-sectional X-rays in order to reveal minute details about structures in the body Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- is a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics in which matter exposed to magnetic fields and radio waves was found to emit radio signals. Positron emission tomography (PET)- is a medical imaging technique involving the use of so-called radio pharmaceuticals, substances that emit radiation that is short-lived and therefore relatively safe toad minister to the body. Ultrasonography - is an imaging technique that uses the transmission of high-frequency sound waves into the body to generate an echo signal that is converted by a computer into a real-time image of anatomy and physiology. Which of the following cavities make up the ventral body cavity? Answer: Abdominopelvic cavity & Thoracic cavity The intestines are organs that help with digestion. In which cavity would you expect to find these organs? Answer: Abdominopelvic cavity Which of the following serous membranes surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity? Answer: Peritoneum Evolution- is a change in gene expression that occurs over many generations in a population of living organisms. Concentration gradients- determine the flow of individual molecules from one location to another Pressure gradients - are responsible for the flow of fluids and gasses. Electrical gradients - cause the movement of charged particles, such as ions, from one location to another Superior- refers to a position higher up or closer to the head. Inferior- refers to a position lower down or farther from the head. Proximal- refers to a position closer to the point of attachment or origin of the limb. Distal - refers to a position farther from the point of attachment or origin. Sagittal plane- divides the body into left and right halves. Coronal (frontal) plane- divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves. Transverse (horizontal) -plane divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Horizontal plane- is another term often used interchangeably with transverse. Mitochondria- power house of the cell Two types of cells Prokaryotic- bacteria/cell wall/ sysntesize of the same compartment Eukaryotic- multiple They have true nucleus in commom-served as blueprint /DNA - Lot of compartment /rna is sysmtesis by nucleus but protein is Prokaryotic - Do not have structures surrounded by membraneS -contain organelles sorrounded by membranes - Most living organisms Cell membrane -outer membrane of cell that control movement in and out of the cell Hydrophobic- water fearing (stem) non- polar It’s either oil or fats. Hydrophilic- attract more water, ionic compounds Cell wall- most commonly found in plant cells and bacteria/ Supports and protects cells Inside the cell Nucleus- directs cell activities - Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane - Contains genetic material-DNA IS like a blueprint or memory contains all the instructions. - Contains nuclear membrane ( barrier) Chromosomes- Nucleus/Made of DNA/Contain instructions for treats and characteristics Nucleolus-inside nucleus/contains ran to build proteins Endosplasmic reticulum -moves materials around in cell/smooth type: lacks ribosomes/rough type pictured Golgi- containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome Mitochondria- power house of the cell - Produces energy through chemical reactions that need by the cell - Help to take the food - Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats and carbohydrates -controls level of water and other materials in cell -recyles and decomposes proteins, fats and carbohydrates Lysosomes- digestive plant for proteins, fats and carbohydrates -transports undigested material to cell -like garbage men , collect foods particles -cell breaks down if lysosome explodes - It protects from foreign invaders Vacuoles- usually found in plant cells -contains green chlorophyll -where photosynthesis takes place Transport mechanisms of the cell Passive processess- - Movement of substances from area w/ a higher concentrations to an area with lower concentration w/o energy expenditure - Energy source: kinetic energy Active - Movement of subs w/ or against the occmentrations gradient w./ requires the expeditures Exocytosis- secretions or ejectios of subs enclosed in membranous vesicle w/ fuses w/ plasma membrane and uprtures, releasing the substances to the exterior Endocytosis- engulfed extracellular (removing insidE Phagocytosis- cell eating, Pinocytosis- cell drinking ======================= Introduction to Human Body Anatomy- study of structures of human body, Means to dissect, cut, separate Physiology- study of the processes and functions of the body Organelles- are the small structures that make up some of the cells Organism- any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as bacterium or trillions of cells such as human Metabolism- is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such growth, movement and reproduction Growth- refers to increase in size of all part of the organism Reproduction- is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Surface anatomy- study of external features like bony projections Anatomical imaging- utilizes different imaging samples like ultrasound and X-ray to evaluate internal structures Organ- two or more tissues types work together to perform one or more functions Systemic Anatomy- is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. Regional anatomy- the study of the organization of the body by areas within each region Evolution- is a change in gene expression that occurs from generation to generation. Approaches in the study of ANATOMY Systemic anatomy- is the study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems. Regional anatomy- is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously. Human physiology- is the study of a specific organism, the human, whereas cellular physiology and systemic physiology are subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational levels STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY Chemical Level - The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical makeup. The chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine into molecules. This is important because a molecule’s structure determines its function. Tissue Level- A tissue (tish′ū) is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. four primary types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous Cell Level Cells- are the basic structural and functional units of organisms. Molecules can combine to form organelles, which are the small structures that make up some cells. Organ Level - An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions Organ System Level - An organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions Organism level- Where the different organ functions Organism- is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. Organism Level (Characteristics of life) Organization- refers to the specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism, from cell organelles to organs, interacting and working together Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction Responsiveness - is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the adjustments that help maintain its life Growth -refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism Development - includes the changes an organism undergoes through time Reproduction- is the formation of new cells or new organisms Homeostasis- is the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal and external environment. - in other words its means same state /standing still - W/o homeostasis organisms would not be able to have stable internal conditions. 2 body systems that largely control body's homeostatic state *nervous system *endocrine system Homeostasis- continually disrupted by *external stimuli- intense heat ,cold, lack of oxygen *internal stimuli- psychological stresses, exercise - if homeostasis is not maintained death may result Feedback system- closed loop structure w/c results of the past actions. 2 types of feedback *Negative feedback- maintain a stable range if values - ex: blood pressure and temperature regulation *Positive feedback- a growth cycle not a homeostasis Ex: blood clotting during the birth of a baby Under negative feedback we have: *Receptor-- usually the senses /change in the environment *Control center- brain *Effector- once signal is made it generates effect Why feedback is important? - w/o feedback homeostasis cannot occur. Organism will loses the ability to self regulate its body. - Changes in feedback loop can lead to various diseases including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, fever.etc setpoint- is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. Variables- are conditions like volume, chemical content feedback systems have three other components Negative feedback- is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point positive feedback system- intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it receptor- monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a control center. control center - receives the input effector receives- output commands and produces a response that changes the Human Anatomy study of the normal structure and their relationship with one another. Gross / Macroscopic Anatomy - Systemic - Regional - Surface can be seen by the naked eye Microscopic Anatomy - Very small structures -can only be viewed with a microscope Cytology Histology Embryology- Study of the development of human body from fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine life NEUROANATOMY- Study of normal microscopic gross features and development of the nervous system ANATOMICAL POSITION Standing upright and facing forward each arm hanging on either side of the body palms facing forward legs are parallel, with feet flat on the floor and facing forward Prone Position - describes a face-down orientation Supine- describes a face-up orientation Foot- Meta tarsal Phalanges- metacarpal Inversion- paloob Eversion- palabas Retraction- papuntahin yung muscles paloob, strengthen the muscles Directional Terms Anterior- Describes the front (belly) of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot Posterior- Describes the back of the body. The spine is posterior to the stomach. Superior- Describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The neck is superior to the shoulders. Inferior - Describes a position below or lower than another part of the body. The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. Lateral- Describes a structure toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits Medial -Describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the most medial toe. Superficial- Describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones Deep - Describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull Proximal- Describes a position on a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body Distal- Describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur Sections and Planes Section- is a slice of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Plane- is an imaginary slice through the body used in imaging Sagittal plane- is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides Midsagittal or median plane- If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body Parasagittal plane or longitudinal section- If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides Frontal plane- is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”) Transverse plane or Cross section- is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Oblique Plane- A plane any type of Angle other than horizontal or vertical angle. Oblique are odd angles Proximal and Distal Wrist is proximal to the Hand Ankle is proximal to the foot Elbow is proximal to the wrist Knee is proximal to the Ankle Shoulder is proximal to the Elbow Hip is proximal to the Knee Elbow is distal to the shoulder Knee is distal to the Hip Wrist is distal to the Elbow Ankle is distal the Knee Hand is distal to the Wrist Foot is distal to the Ankle Subdivisions of the Posterior and Anterior Cavities posterior cavity (dorsal cavity)- posterior cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain anterior cavity (ventral cavity)- anterior cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity 1. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lung and the heart 2. abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction. spinal cavity (vertebral cavity)- spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord Serous membrane (also referred to as a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. Three serous cavities Pleura- is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity Pericardium- is the serous membrane that surrounds the heart in the pericardial cavity Peritoneum- is the serous membrane that surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity 1. Right Hypochondriac Region (1st region) Liver, Gallbladder, Right kidney, small intestine 2. Epigastric Region (2nd region) Stomach, liver, Pancreas, duodenum, spleen, adrenal glands 3. Left hypochondriac (3rd region) Spleen, colon, left kidney, pancreas 4. Right Lumbar (4th region) gallbladder, liver, right colon 5. Umbilical Region (5th region) umbilicus (navel) , parts of the small intestines, deodenum 6. Left Lumbar (6th region) Descending Colon, sigmoid colon 7. Right Iliac (7th region) Appendix, Cecum 8. Hypogastric Region (8th region) Urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, Female reproductive organs 9. Left Illiac (9th region) Descending colon, sigmoid colon Flexion- Decreasing the Angle Extension- Increasing the Angle Abduction- means itaas ( parallel to the shoulder) Adduction- Ibaba Inversion- paloob Eversion- palabas Protraction - shoulder is moved forward Retraction- pulled posteriorly and medially Opposition- Movement of thumb and little finger toward each other Reposition- Return to anatomical position SYNOVIAL JOINT Pivot Joint (b/w vertebrae) Hinge Joint (b/w humerus and ulna saddle joint (b/w metacarpal + carpal ball socket joint (b/w hip + femur condyloid joint- (b/w metacarpal + phalanx Plane joint PROTOPLASM - THE BASIS OF LIFE THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE Spontaneous generation or abiogenesis - that life originated from non-living things Biogenesis – process of reproduction or biogenesis explains that new life comes only from a pre-existing life it affirms the genetic theory of the origin of life Cosmozoic theory – this theory maintains the simple living forms might have reached the earth accidentally from some other sources in the universe Naturalistic or physico-chemical theory - states that when the conditions of the early earth became suitable to life, organic molecules like amino acids aggregated - these organic molecules were derived from the atmosphere - in the course of evolution protoplasmic particles developed and gave rise to living organisms - this concept on the origin of life gained support from the recent studies on viruses - several viruses crystallize like inorganic substances, but they behave like living organisms by reproducing Special creation theory -human reason cannot fully explain the beginning of life, hence life has been presumed to have been created by some supernatural power either once or at successive intervals BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS OR ORGANISMS 1. Organization – a living organism, be it plant or animal is composed of one or several cells Cell- is defined as the fundamental unit of structure and function of a living organism 2. Irritability or sensitivity - living organisms react to physical and chemical changes in the environment 3. Movement – all living organisms have the ability to move Cyclosis- protoplasmic mass in cells 4. Growth - refers to increase in size or in the amount of the protoplasm of the body 5. Reproduction – each living organism is capable of duplicating itself in kind - this is done by using materials within the body to insure survival or perpetuation of the species 6. Metabolism – all living organisms carry on various chemical processes - this aids in observing the occurrence TWO PHASES OF METABOLISM 1. Anabolism – which forms more complex substances from simpler ones resulting in the storage of energy and production of new cellular materials 2. Catabolism – which breaks down complex substances to release energy 7. Adaptability – ability of a living organism to adapt or adjust itself to its environment in order to survive PROTOPLASM- living substance of the cell. it possesses properties which include physical, chemical and physiological properties PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM A. Physical Properties B. Chemical properties PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM 1. heterogeneous 2. colloidal – has been described as emulsoid, reticular, granular, fibrillar, alveolar or foam-like 3. translucent, colorless, slimy, viscous fluid 4. viscosity – ability of absorbing and eliminating water accounts for its continuous changes 5. exhibits brownian movement 6. tyndall effect CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 1. Composed of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, chloride, sodium, iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, manganese 2. Elements may form compounds which may be classified as inorganic or organic INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Which are found in living and non-living bodies are more numerous than the organic parts of the organisms. 1. water 2. salts 3. gases WATER Water makes up about 80-90% of the protoplasm It consists of : free water and bound water Free water – 99% of the total cellular water, is miscible with the cytoplasm, serving as the chief solvent for the solutes and dispersion medium of the protoplasm Bound water – 4-5% of the cellular water, tied to polypeptide chains of protein molecules by hydrogen bonds IMPORTANCE OF WATER: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 1. solvent power – acts as the universal solvent of mineral ions and substances 2. capacity to absorb heat – due to its high specific heat it can prevent drastic temperature changes efficiently 3. ionization power – easily dissociates into H and OH ions CARBON DIOXIDE -Source of carbon and oxygen -Key element in the organization of all organic compounds -It is directly and indirectly essential to life INORGANIC ACIDS AND BASES Neutral solution has a pH of 7 Acids have pH ranging from 1-7 Bases have pH ranging from 7-14 Any considerable change in pH affects the life of the cell or the organism SALTS- Inorganic compounds formed when an acid is neutralized by a base SOME OF THE MINERAL IONS FOUND IN THE PROTOPLASM calcium ions – found in circulating blood, in parts of the cells, in bones and calcified cartilages, combined with phosphates and carbonates Phosphate ions – occur in blood and tissue fluids as free ions, but much are bound to organic substances like phospholipids, nucleotides, phosphoproteins Chloride ions – circulate in the blood and intercellular fluids as free ions; found in small quantities in the cells and component of gastric juices. Phosphorus ions – present in high concentration within the cell protoplasm as in muscle and red blood cells iron ions – found in hemoglobin and in the cytochromes in the un-ionized form sulfur – in the organic form found in amino acids like cysteine, cystine, methionine where it is bound to carbon GASSES -Is a state of matter where the molecules are widely dispersed in a highly disordered fashion Two gasses present in the protoplasm: 1. Oxygen- needed for biological oxidation to release energy 2. Carbon dioxide – waste product of oxidation ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Protein 4. Nucleic acid CARBOHYDRATES- Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, It is the main source of energy in the body CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES 1. monosaccharides – simple sugars with formula C6H12O6 Example : glucose, dextrose, galactose, fructose or levulose 2. Disaccharides – double sugars - formed by the linkage of two molecules of simple sugars with the loss of a molecule of water - Formula is C12H22O11 3. Polysaccharides – complex sugars made up of several molecules of simple sugars - the formula is ( C6H10O5 ) n - where n represents the unknown number of simple sugar molecules combined Example: starch, glycogen, cellulose MONOSACCHARIDES- Important source of energy for the cells A. Glucose - blood sugar or dextrose B. Fructose – fruit sugar C. Galactose – milk sugar DISACCHARIDES -2 monosaccharides bonded together Principle sugar transported throughout the bodies of land plants A. Lactose – milk sugar: glucose + galactose B. Maltose – malt sugar: glucose + glucose C. Sucrose: table sugar: glucose + fructose POLYSACCHARIDES -Complex sugar Many monosaccharides ( usually glucose ) bonded together A. Starch energy storage in plants B. Glycogen – energy storage in animals C. Cellulose – structural material in plants LIPIDS Fat soluble compounds contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Make up about 3% of the protoplasm Greasy texture or oily consistency Insoluble in water Soluble in organic acids such as ether, benzene or chloroform Some are liquid or fluid at ordinary temperature but others are solid Few firm wax high energy due to fuel CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS 1. Simple lipids – contain glycerol and fatty acids - alcohol esters of fatty acids - examples: fats, oils and waxes 2. Complex lipids – simple lipids plus other substances - examples: phospholipids and cerebrosides COMPLEX OR COMPOUND LIPIDS A. Lipoproteins – with protein B. Glycolipids – with carbohydrates C. Phospholipids – with phosphoric acid Steroids – solid alcohols which are not chemically related to fat but they are included among lipids because they exhibit-fat like properties - examples: sex hormones, adreno-cortical hormones, vit. D, bile acids and cholesterol ( common component of membranes of eukaryotic cells ) THREE MAJOR TYPES OF LIPIDS EXIST IN PROTOPLASM 1. Triglycerides – fatty acids ( 3 hydrocarbon chains ) when bounded through their glycerol become neutral fats - that provides insulation and energy reserves 2. Phospholipids – two fatty acids linked by a glycerol molecule to phosphate containing water-soluble components - fundamental to formation of cell membranes 3. Steroid – composed of four interlocking rings of carbon atoms PROTEINS- Most abundant constituent of the protoplasm, Chief structural pattern of protoplasm form enzymes, hormones, chromosomes and cell components TYPES OF PROTEINS 1. Fibrous protein – polypeptides are arranged parallel along a single axis to produce long fibers or sheets a. Keratin – principal components of hair b. Silk – pleated sheet protein produced by silk moths and spiders Globular proteins – the polypeptides are so tightly folded into spherical or globular shapes, such as hemoglobin, the component of vertebrate blood used to transport oxygen Conjugated protein – simple proteins in union with other substances a. Nucleoprotein – with nucleic acids e.g. histones b. Glycoproteins – with carbohydrates e.g. mucin c. Lipoprotein – with fatty acids e.g. serum ad brain tissue d. chromoproteins – with pigments e.g. cytochrome PROTOPLASMIC PROTEINS IN LIVING BODIESA. Enzymes as Proteins - most of the proteins in the body cells are enzymes - catalysts that control the rates of many chemical reactions such as respiration, digestion, muscle contraction, nerve conduction and other metabolic processes SIX MAIN GENERAL GROUPS ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS THEY PERFORM 1. Oxido-reductases – oxidation-reduction reactions 2. Transferases – transfer of groups 3. Hydrolases – hydrolytic reactions 4. Lyases – addition or removal of a group to and form double bonds 5. Isomerases – catalyze isomerization 6. Ligases or synthetase – condense 2 molecules by splitting a phosphate bond FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED OR INHIBITED THE ENZYMES 1. number of contacts or collision between molecules of the enzyme and that of substrate 2. temperature – increase rate of collision with substrate thus speed up reaction 3. pH concentration – the highest activity of the enzymes is at optimum pH 4. relative concentration of the enzymes and substrate NUCLEIC ACIDS -Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus Building blocks are the nucleotides =========================================== GALING SA BOOK!!!!! Nucleus- control center; controls genetic info Mitochondria- powerhouse; converts sugar to energy via cellular respiration. Ribosomes- site of protein synthesis Golgi apparatus- packaging center of cell; packages & secretes proteins Centrioles- organizes microtubules (spindle fibers) for mitosis Chromosomes- condensed DNA and proteins, codes for genetic traits Cell cycle Interphase - 90% growth, DNA replication, cell func. G0 - resting stage. Cell leaves to carry out function G1- growth and prep of chromosomes for replication S phase- DNA replication occurs G2- prepare for mitosis M phase- mitosis occurs 10% Prophase: chromosomes condensing; nucleus present Metaphase- chromosomes line up in middle of cell; nucleus dissembled Anaphase- chromosomes move away to opposite sides via spindles Telophase - new nuclei forms on both sides to form new cells. Cytokinesis- splits cells into 2. Cell cycle quality control: Checkpoints in G1 & G2 Apoptosis: self destruction of cell Mitosis checkpoints: detect failure of spindle fibers & arrest cell in metaphase. Gene mutations = checkpoint failure = cancer Anatomy- study of the structures of the body Physiology- study of the processes and functions of the body Organelles- are the small structures that make up some of the cells Organism- any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as bacterium or trillions of cells such as human Metabolism- is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such growth, movement and reproduction Growth- refers to increase in size kf all part of the organism Reproduction- is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Surface anatomy- study of external features like bony projections Anatomical imaging- utilizes different imaging samples loke ultrasound and X-ray to evaluate internal structures Organ- two or more tissues types work together to perform one or more functions Six structural levels that our body Chemical Level- Atoms combine and form molecules Cell Level- Molecules form organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria Tissue Level- Similar cells and surrounding materials Organ Level- Different tissue combine to form an organ Organ system- group of organs working together to sustain a specific function Organism level- Organ systems make up an organism Major organs of the human body Integumentary- provides protection Skeletal system- support, allows body movements Muscular system- maintains posture. Produces body heat Lymphatic system- removes foreign substances Respiratory- exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air Digestive- performed mechanical and chemical process of digestion , absorption of nutrient Nervous system- detects sensations and controls movements Endocrine system- influence metabolism, growth and reproductions Cardiovasculr- transports nutrients, waste products, gases and hormones throughout the body Urinary- removes wastes products from the bold and regulates blood ph Female reproductive- produce oocytes and site of fertilization and fetal development Male reproductive- produces and transfers sperm cells to the female Characteristics of life Organization- any problems that affects its organization will greatly disrupt its function. Metabolism- It is the ability of the organism to use energy to perform functions essential to growth, movement and even reproduction. Responsiveness- the capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change. Growth – an increase in number or length. Development- occurs when an organism changes through time Reproduction- ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs and continuity Homeostasis- the ability to maintain balance despiste changes in the internal and external environment feedback system, or feedback loop, is termed a controlled condition. Stimulus- any disruption that causes a chnage in a controlled condition Feedback Systems Component receptor - monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a control center. control center - receives the input effector - receives output commands and produces a response that changes the controlled condition. BODY POSITION Anatomical position- description of any part of the human body assume that the body is in specific stance Prone position- the body is lying face down Supine- the body is lying face up Medial- toward the bodys midline Lateral- away from the body midline Distal- farthes from the point of origin Proximal- closest the point of origin Superior- above Anterior ( ventral)- toward the front of the body Posterior (dorsal) toward the back of the body Superficial- at or near the body surface Deep- away from the body surface Inferior- below Frontal- forehead Orbital- eye Nasal- nose Oral- mouth Neck- cervical Otic- ear Buccal- cheek Mental- chin Clavicular- collarbone Pectoral-chest Sternal- breastbone Mammary- breast Abdominal- abdomen Umbilical- navel Pelvic- pelvis Inquinal- groin Pubic- genital Axillary- armpit Brachial- arm Antecubital- front of the elbow Antebrachial- forearm Carpal- wrist Palmar- palm Digital- fingers Coxal- hip Femoral- thigh Patellar- kneecap Crucal- leg Talus- ankle Dorsum- (top of foot) setpoint- is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates Cranial- skull Occipital (base skull) Nuchal (back of the neck) Acrmial- point of shoulder Scapular- shoulder blade Vertebral - spinal column Lumbar- loin Scaral- between hips Gluteal- buttocks Perineal- perineum Sural- calf Trunk- dorsal back Olecranon- point of elbow Dorsum- back of the hand Popliteal - hollow behind the knee Regions of the body Central region - head, neck, and trunk. upper limb - arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. lower limb -thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. Abdominopelvic divides into four Quadrants - RUQ - LUQ - RLQ - LLQ Body planes- divide the body, even organs, into sections. Sagittal plane- divides the body lengthwise into right and left sides, Midsagittal plane- if the section is made exactly at midline Frontal Plane- Divides the body lengthwise into arterior and posterior portions also called coronal plane Tranverse Plane- Divides the body horizontally into upper and lower portions also called the Horizontal plane longitudinal section- A cut through the long axis of the organ Transverse or cross section - a cut at a right angle to the long axis oblique section- cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle cavities- house the internal organs. serous membranes- lines trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities. The Cell & Cellular Metabolism and Reproduction (Mitosis and Meiosis) Active transport - Transport process in which solutes move from areas of lesser to greater concentration. It requires energy in the form of ATP Cilia - Hair-like processes on the surface of the cell that propel materials across a surface Cytoplasm - The gel-like substance surrounding the nucleus and filling the cell Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Large polymer of a nucleotide that carries the genetic information of a cell Diffusion - A passive transport mechanism that involves the movement of particles from an area of higher to lower concentration Endocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that brings substances into the cell Exocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that releases substances outside the cell Facilitated diffusion - Transport process involving the diffusion of a substance through a channel protein Filtration - Transport process in which water and dissolved particles are forced across a membrane from an area of higher to lower pressure Golgi apparatus - Prepares proteins and packages them for export to other parts of the body Hydrostatic pressure - Pressure exerted by water Hypertonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a higher concentration of solutes compared to the fluid within the cell Hypotonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a lower concentration of solutes compared to the fluid within the cell Isotonic - Pertains to a solution in which the concentration of solutes in the solution is the same as the concentration of solutes in the cell Microvilli - Folds of a cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a cell to facilitate absorption Mitochondria - Organelle that converts organic compounds into ATP Mitosis - Type of cell division in which the “mother” cells splits into two identical daughter cells Nucleus - The cell’s “control center” that contains a complete set of 46 chromosomes Organelles - The structures within the cell that perform specific tasks in cellular metabolism Osmosis - A passive transport mechanism involving the diffusion of water from an area of greater concentration of water (and a lesser concentration of solutes) to an area of lesser concentration of water (and a greater concentration of solutes) Osmotic pressure - Water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis Phagocytosis - Process in which large particles are trapped in the plasma membrane and brought into the cell Pinocytosis - Process in which fluid and dissolved particles are trapped in the plasma membrane and brought into the cell Plasma membrane - The external boundary of the cell Polymer - Large molecule consisting of many smaller molecules joined in sequence Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - Nucleotide that assists in protein synthesis Ribosomes - Granules of protein and RNA scattered throughout the cytoplasm; some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum CELL STRUCTURE- Plasma membrane, or cell membrane- defining boundaries with gate-like properties Cytoplasm- contains organelles and molecules Nucleus- acts as the control center and contains a cell’s genetic information. ================================================================== GALING SA PPT NI MA'AM!!!! Cell Structure & Function Examples of Cells: Amoeba Proteus, Bacteria, Plant Stem, Nerve cell, Red Blood Cell Two types of Cells Prokaryotic- Do not have structures surrounded by membrane ex: bacteria Eukaryotic- Contain organelles surrounded by membranes Cell Membrane- Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell Cell Wall- most commonly found in plant cells & bacteria, supports & protects cells Nucleus- Direct cell activities, separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane, contains genetic material- DNA Chromosomes- Made on DNA, Contains instructions for traits & characteristic Nucleolus- Inside nucleus, Contains RNA to build proteins Endoplasmic Reticulum- Moves materials around in cell, smooth type: lacks ribosomes, rough type: ribosomes embedded in surface Mitochondria- Produces energy through chemical reaction- breaking down fats & carbohydrates, controls level of water and other materials in cell, recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates Lysosome- Digestive "plant" for proteins, fats and carbohydrates, transport undigested material to cell membrane for removal, cell break down if lysosome explodes. Chloroplast- Usually found in plant cell, contains green chlorophyll where photosynthesis takes place Passive Processes- Movement of substances from an area w/ a higher concentration to an area w/lower concentration without energy expenditure, energy source: kinetic energy Active Processes- movement of substances w/ or against the concentration gradient w/requires the expenditure of energy. Energy source: Hydrolysis of ATP TISSUES tissue -is used to describe a group of cells functioning together in the body. Four Types of Tissues Epithelial tissue- are sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, line internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands. FUNCTION: Protection, secretions, absorption, excretion Connective tissue- our most diverse category of tissue, binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body. FUNCTION: Bind support, protect ,fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells Muscle- Movement Nervous tissue- is capable of short- and long-distance communication throughout the body. FUNCTION: Transmit impulses for coordinator, regulation, integration, and sensory reception Simple Squamous Epithelium Tissue- Simple squamous epithelium is made up of a single layer of thin, flattened cells, it functions in the exchange of gases in the lungs and lines blood and lymph vessels as well as body cavities. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium- simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cube- shaped cells w/ centrally located nuclei, it functions in secretion and absorption in the kidneys, and in secretion in glands. Simples Columnar Epithelium- is made up of a row of elongated cells whose nuclei are all located near the basement membrane. It may be ciliated. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium- These cells appear layered due to the varying positions of their nuclei within the row of cells, but are not truly layered. Stratified Squamous Epithelium- This type of tissue is made up of layers of flattened cells that are designed to protect underlying layers. Transitional Epithelium- is designed to distend and return to its normal size, as it does in the lining of the urinary bladder. Glandular Epithelium- this tissue is made up of cells designed to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body fluids. Major Cell Type Fibroblast- is the most common cell type, and is a fixed, star -shaped cell that secretes fibers and is large in size Macrophages- function as scavenger cells and defend against infection. Mast Cells- large and are located near blood vessels where they release heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine( promotes inflammation) Collageneous fibers- fibers (white fibers) made of the protein collagen, add strength for holding body parts together. Elastic fibers- (yellow fibers) made of the protein elastin, are stretchy and add flexibility to certain types of connective tissues. Loose Connective Areolar Tissue- this type of tissue forms delicate, thim membranes throughout the body that bind body parts together such as skin and underlying organs Adispose Tissue- is loose connective tissue designed to store fat, found beneath the skin, around joints , padding the kidneys and other internal organs, and in certain abdominal membranes. Dense Connective tissue- This tissue is consists of densely packed collagenous fibers and is very strong but lacks a good blood supply, it is found as part of tendons and ligaments. Cartilage- is a rigid connective tissue that provides a supportive framework for various structures. It lacks a vascular system and so heals slowly. Hyaline Cartilage- is white with abundant fine collagen fibers, is found at the ends of bones, and supports respiratory passages. Elastic Cartilage- provides a shock- absorbing function in intervertebral disks and in the knees and pelvic girdle Bone- is the most rigid connective tissue, with deposits of minerals salts and collagen within matrix. Bone cells called osteocytes. Skeletal muscle tissue- is attached to bone and can be controlled by conscious effort (voluntary) Smooth Muscle Tissue- lacks striations, is uni-nucleate, and consists of spindle- shaped cells. Cardiac Muscle Tissue- is found only in the heart and consists of branching fibers that are connected to each other with intercalated disks. Nervous Tissues- are found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves MICROSCOPE Robert Hooke (1635–1703)- best known for his work in microscopy and for formulating Hooke's Law, which describes the elasticity of materials, His book Micrographia (1665) provided detailed observations of the microscopic world, including the first description of cells, he played a significant role in the development of the scientific method. Anton van Leeuwenhoek- Father of microbiology. He was the first to see living organisms under a microscope. History of microscope In 1590 F.H Janssen & Z.Janssen constructed the first simple compound light microscope -10x to 30x. In 1665 Robert Hooke developed a first laboratory compound microscope. Later, Kepler and Galileo developed a modern class room microscope. In 1672 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek developed a first simple microscope with a magnification of 200x – 300x. In 1674, Anton was the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast, plants, and life in a drop of water. He is called as Father of microscopy. The term microscope was coined by Faber in 1623. In the early 1930’s the first electron beam microscopes were developed which were a breakthrough in technology as they increased the magnification from about 1000x or so up to 250,000x or more. A microscope is a high-precision optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to produce highly magnified images of small specimens or objects especially when they are too small to be seen by the naked (unaided) eye. A light source is used (either by mirrors or lamps) to make it easier to see the subject matter. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Principle Microscopy is to get a magnified image, in which structures may be resolved that could not be resolved with the help of an unaided eye. Magnification It is the ratio of the size of an object seen under a microscope to the actual size observed with an unaided eye. The total magnification of the microscope is calculated by multiplying the magnifying power of the objective lens by that of the eyepiece. Ex: Multiply the eyepiece magnification (10X) by the objective magnification (4X, 10X, 40X) Example: 4 x 10 = 40X total Resolving power It is the ability to differentiate two close points as separate. The resolving power of the human eye is 0.25 mm The light microscope can separate dots that are 0.25µm apart. The electron microscope can separate dots that are 0.5nm apart. Limit of resolution It is the minimum distance between two points to identify them separately. It is calculated by Abbé equation Working distance It is the distance between the objective and the objective slide. The working distance decreases with increasing magnification. Numerical aperture(NA) The numerical aperture of a lens is the ratio of the diameter of the lens to its focal length. NA can be decreased by decreasing the amount of light that passes through a lens Let’s take a peek at the components of a light microscope. 1) Body Tube- Has 10X magnification. 2) Revolving Nosepiece- Used to switch the objectives 3) Objectives- Magnifies the specimen 4X 4) Objectives-Magnifies the specimen 10X 5) Objectives-Magnifies the specimen 40X 6) Stage Clips- Used to secure the microscope slide 7) Diaphram- Used to adjust the light 8) Light Source- Used to see the image of the specimen 9) Ocular Lens- Used to view the specimen 10) Arm- Used to support the microscope while carrying 11) Stage- Used to hold the microscope slide 12) Coarse Focus- Used to resolve the image 13) Fine Focus- Used to resolve the image 14) Base- Used to support the microscope while carrying Parts of the Microscope Eyepiece Allows for further magnification of the image by the eyepiece lens Closest to the observer’s eye Its basic function is to look at the focused, magnified image projected by the objective lens and magnify that image a second time before your eye looks at the image of the specimen Body tube Allows installation of eyepiece lens ( Tubes have a standard length of 160mm) Nosepiece Allows interchange between three different objective lenses Objectives Low power (short) High power (long) Magnify the sample from the stage to the eyepiece lens closest to the specimen A standard microscope has three, four, or five objective lenses that range from 4x to 100x Arm Stage Platform for the Sample Stage clips Makes minute adjustment to the position of the stage at a set height, allowing different areas of the sample to be viewed Diaphragm Controls amount of light illuminating the sample Coarse and fine adjustment knobs Makes minute adjustments to the height of the stage, allowing the sample to be brought into focus. Light source responsible for shining light on the object on the slide Base Contains illumination source How to use a microscope Place the slide on the stage Use stage clips to secure slide Adjust nosepiece to lowest setting (Lowest = shortest objective) Look into eyepiece 1. Use coarse focus knob

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