Oral Communication Lecture Notes PDF

LECTURE NOTES/REVIEWER IN ORAL COMMUNICATION (Q1) Pointers to Review: Nature, Functions, Process and Elements of Communication Communication Models Strategies to Avoid Communication Breakdown Examining Sample Oral C...

LECTURE NOTES/REVIEWER IN ORAL COMMUNICATION (Q1) Pointers to Review: Nature, Functions, Process and Elements of Communication Communication Models Strategies to Avoid Communication Breakdown Examining Sample Oral Communication Types of Speech Context Types of Speeches Types of Speech Style Types of Speech Act NATURE, FUNCTIONS, PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014). Nature of Communication Communication is a process. It takes place when two or more people exchange ideas either through written or spoken words (verbal) or actions (nonverbal). Both verbal and nonverbal can be used at the same time. Functions of Communication There are five functions of communication. These are regulation or control, social interaction, motivation, information, and emotional expression. 1. Regulation / Control – Communication functions to control behavior. It can be used to regulate the nature and number of activities people engage in. “Take your medicine before you go to bed.” “Finish your work before you go.” 2. Social Interaction – Communication allows people to interact with others to develop bonds or intimacy. It also allows individuals to express desires, encouragement, needs, and decision or to give and get information. “Would you like to go to church with me?” “Come on! You can do it!” 3. Motivation – Communication persuades or encourages another person to change his/her opinion, attitude, and behavior. “You’re on the right track. Keep up the good work.” “My dream is to finish my Senior High School despite this pandemic”. 4. Emotional Expression – Communication facilitates people’s expression of their feelings such as love, fear, anger, joy, hope, or any other emotion. “I’m so happy to have you in my life.” “I like you so much.” 5. Information – Communication functions to convey information. It can be used in giving and getting information. “The Philippine Normal University was founded in 1901.” “You can find the bathroom right next to this door” The Process of Communication In order to successfully communicate, it is important to understand the process of communication. The diagram shows the basic steps. 1. The speaker develops an idea to be sent. 2. The speaker encodes the idea or converts it to words or actions. 3. The speaker transmits or sends out the idea using a specific medium or channel. 4. The receiver gets the message and decodes or interprets it. 5. The receiver provides or sends feedback. At any point of the communication process, noise may take place and hinder the flow of communication process. The Elements in The Process of Communication Sender is the one who initiates the message that needs to be transmitted. He sends the message that may be in different forms such as pictures, symbols, postures, gestures, or even just a smile. After generating the idea, he sends it in such a manner that can be understood clearly by the receiver. Message refers to the information intended to be communicated by words as in speech, letters, pictures, or symbols. It can be verbal or non-verbal. It is the content the sender wants to convey to the receiver. Encoding is the process of expressing the idea into appropriate medium. It may be verbal or non-verbal. The sender may put the message into a series of symbols, words, pictures or gestures. Channel refers the medium or passage through which encoded message is passed to the receiver. It may be transmitted through face-to-face communication, telephone, radio, television, memorandum, or computer. Receiver refers to whom the message is meant for. He plays a significant role in the communication process like the sender. He needs to comprehend the message sent. His translation of the message received depends on his/her knowledge of the subject matter of the message, experience, and relationship with the sender. Decoding means translating the encoded message into a language that can be understood by the receiver. After receiving the message, the receiver interprets it and tries to understand it. Feedback refers to the response of the receiver to the message sent to him/her by the sender. Feedback ensures that the message has been effectively encoded and decoded.  Noise is a hindrance to communication. This can take place at any step in the entire communication process. There are various types of noise. Examples of physical noise are loud music, an irritating sound of an engine of a machine, or a classmate who talks to you while the teacher is giving a lecture. The second type of noise is physiological – when the body becomes the hindrance to communication such as headache, toothache, or hunger. The third type is psychological noise that refers to qualities in us that affect how we communicate and interpret others such as prejudice and any feeling can interfere with communication. Noise is considered as a barrier to effective communication. COMMUNICATION MODELS Aristotle’s Model of Communication Aristotle (5 BCE), a teacher of Rhetoric and a founder of an academy that produced good speakers, came up with the first and earliest model of communication. This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication. Speaker plays a very important role in public speaking. To influence or persuade his audience, he must first prepare his speech and analyze the audience before he speaks to them. Transactional Model In the transactional model, there is an exchange of messages between the sender and the receiver where both take turns in sending and receiving messages. The roles of both communicators reverse each time in the communication process. This is also called circular model of communication and is used for interpersonal communication. Everyday talk and interactions are examples of transactional model of communication. The participants in this communication process who have common social and cultural systems and relational situations can communicate with one another more effectively. A teacher discussing a lesson with his students or teachers holding a virtual meeting communicate with one another efficiently because they know each other and share the same social system. The model shows that there is a continuous exchanging of messages, but barriers may take place and affect communication. Shannon – Weaver’s Model of Communication Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver introduced the concept of noise. This model of communication is also known as the Telephone Model for this is based on the experience of using the telephone back in the 1940’s wherein the message was hindered by noise. Therefore, the message received by the listener was not necessarily the message sent by the sender. The Shannon – Weaver model of communication contains six important. 1. Sender - the originator of message or the information source selects desire message. 2. Encoder - the transmitter which converts the message into signals. Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or binary data which is compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone, the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables 3. Decoder - the reception place of the signal which converts signals into message, a reverse process of encode. Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and understandable for receiver. Otherwise, receiver can’t receive the exact message, and it will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver 4. Receiver - the destination of the message from sender. Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to sender. If the message is distracted by noise, it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver 5. Noise - the messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this process the messages may be distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder, and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message. Schramm Model of Communication Wilbur Schramm is known as the Father of Mass Communication. He came up with five models but in the Schramm Model of Communication he developed in 1955, communication breakdown is explained. He asserts that both the sender and the receiver should have the same field of experience. In this concept, field of experience refers to everything that makes an individual unique – everything that he/she has ever learned, watched, seen, heard, read, and studied. In this model, communication has six elements: source, encoder, message, channel, decoder and receiver.  He gives emphasis on encoding and decoding of message. This model shows how a message is transferred from the sender to the receiver. The model also asserts that message can be complicated by different meaning learned by different people. Schramm claims that communication can take place if and only if there is an overlap between the field of experience of the participants of the communication process. It means that the sender and the receiver have commonalities. For example, a Japanese is invited to give a talk to Filipino students. These students can only understand English and Filipino. If the speaker will speak in Japanese, the audience will not be able to understand him. Eugene White Model of Communication Eugene White’s Model of communication says that communication is circular and continuous, without a beginning or end. His 1960 cyclical model, the communication process is composed of eight stages- thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving, decoding, feed-backing, monitoring, and thinking. He also points out that although one can assume that communication begins with thinking, it can be observed from any point in the circle. White was also the one who introduced the concept of feedback which is a process also known as to close the loop. Berlo’s Model of Communication The Berlo’s model of communication takes into account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo’s model follows the SMCR model Berlo’s model of communication is composed of a several factors under each element. ▪ The SOURCE is where the message originates. The person should have communication skills like the ability to read, write, speak, and listen to the right attitude towards the listeners, subject, and oneself. The individual must be knowledgeable about the topic he is communicating and the audience’s familiarity with it. In communicating, the social system must be considered such as the culture of the audience. The sender of the message from where the message originates is referred to as the encoder. ▪ Content is the body of the MESSAGE, from beginning to the end like whatever the teacher teaches his students from the beginning up to the end. The speech must be accompanied by elements such as gestures, facial expression or body language so that listeners will not lose interest. Treatment is the way one treats his message. One must understand the importance of the message know how to handle it. Berlo’s model asserts that a message must be properly structured in order to be conveyed clearly. The code in this model refers to the means through which a message is sent and in what form. It could be the language, gestures, expressions, music, and so on. The code should be correct in the communication. Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. ▪ The C in the SMCR stands for CHANNEL. Channel refers to the five sense organs: hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting. These five senses help human beings to communicate with one another. ▪ When the RECEIVER message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the sender is trying to convey. This is also called decoding. Helical Model of Communication The Helical Model of communication was developed by Frank Dance in 1967. He thought of communication similar to helix. Helix is a smooth curve like a spring that goes upwards and downwards. This model presents the concept of time where continuousness of communication process is very important. In helical model, communication is a dynamic process. Communication progresses as an individual gets older and his experience and vocabulary increases. STRATEGIES TO AVOID COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN In effective communication, speakers do not only communicate using their words but also with their actions. They should also see to it that the actions they make must match with what they say, otherwise, miscommunication may take place. Communication using words is called verbal communication while communication without words such as facial expression and hand gestures is called non-verbal communication. Communication can take among people with or without words. There are two types of communication: verbal and non-verbal. Verbal Communication Verbal communication is the use of words in sharing information with other people. It can include both spoken and written communication. Spoken communication is mostly face-to-face, but nowadays, technology such as phone and internet allow people to communicate with others without being at the same place at the same time. The verbal element of communication is all about the words one chooses and how the receiver interprets it. The purpose of communication is to convey information to others. Through the choice of written and spoken words, ideas are exchanged. Unfortunately, miscommunication is common, many times that participants in a communication process fail to understand what are said or written. There are possible barriers to verbal communication. First, people themselves participating in the interaction can be the barriers. They may have poor infirmities such as poor hearing or eyesight and others stutter. People have different opinions and beliefs; they follow cultural mores (values, customs, and behaviors that are accepted by a particular group); or they adhere to society’s attitudes toward gender and sexuality, business practices, and religious beliefs. The factors mentioned above can lead to their inability to deliver, listen to, and respond appropriately to the message. Opinions and beliefs color our message or our response. The participants, both speaker and listener have opinions and beliefs that belong to a culture and a gender. Gender comes into communication when people categorize certain ways of speaking or using words as being masculine or feminine. Many people do not expect men to be soft spoken or have a high-pitched voice or women having harsh and a low-pitched voice. The topic may also be a barrier to communication because of its vagueness, complexity, emotional pull, or hidden agenda. The speaker must avoid these qualities in the topic of the message so that, instead, it will be clear, simple, restrained, and with no hidden motives.  Communicative Situation is another group of possible barriers to communication. There may be “noise” in the physical setting and in the participants themselves. The actual noise from the surrounding may cause the participants to misunderstand one another. At the same time, the participants may have their own motives for participating, motives that are not aligned with or support the speaker’s purpose for communicating. The audience must know whether the speaker is there to entertain or to persuade. The listener may not have enough knowledge or experience to form a basis for interpreting and responding to the message. Language Choice also leads to communication breakdown. The linguistic differences among the participants can be a barrier to communication. Some words used by the speaker may mean different things to others. Depending on how a word is used, it can easily be misinterpreted by another person. The speaker must be very careful with the words he uses. Non-Verbal Communication Transmitting messages without using words is called non-verbal communication. It is conveyed as visual cues. Gestures, facial expressions, giving flowers, choosing a color of what to wear, or putting a forefinger in front of lips are just some examples of non-verbal communication. Although no word is used, non-verbal communication can effectively communicate many human feelings. Non-verbal communication includes the following: 1. Language of gestures Gestures are the most often used type of non-verbal communication. To be more understandable and interesting to a listener, the speaker must accompany his/her speech with gestures but one has to consider the culture of the receiver because gestures have different meanings in other places. In the Philippines and other countries, nodding means yes but it is the opposite in the Middle East. The following are other examples of gesture: a. Emblems – clenched fist upraised b. Emphasizing – “YES” clenched both fists in front of breast c. Illustrating – “this large” (open hands set apart) d. Regulating – “shh” forefinger in front of lips 2. Facial Expression The face plays a very important role in communication. It expresses various types of emotions or feelings such as joy, sorrow, anger, annoyance, confusion, fear, hatred or surprise. Within the facial area, eyes are especially effective for indicating attention and interest. However, interpretations of facial expressions differ from culture to culture. 3. Language of colors People choose colors based on the meaning of each. Colors have certain meanings based on the dictates of culture and gender. In the Philippines, most parents prepare everything in blue for baby boys and pink for baby girls. People wear black when they grieve while others wear white. 4. Language of flowers Flowers are also used to say what we cannot expressed in words. These meanings are also influenced by culture and gender. In the Philippines, men send flowers to women. When men give flowers, it reflects their reference to women as delicate and feminine. It indicates special treatment. When a man gives a woman flowers, it's a sure sign that she is someone very dear to him. Using flowers can create conflict if one does not know the culture of a place. In the Philippines, one will be annoyed if someone gives her plumeria or kalachi. In Hawaii, they give kalachuchi to welcome guests. Italians send chrysanthemums for special occasions, but Filipinos generally see them in funeral arrangements. 5. Language of space Language of space or proxemics is the use of space based on importance. This type of non-verbal communication is similarly used as chronemics by people who want to show who they are. In some companies, the one who holds the highest position usually has the biggest office and in the best location such as on the top floor or penthouse of the building. Distance can express the degree of intimacy and individual acceptance. 6. Language of time Language of time or chronemics is the use of time based on position and power. In the Philippines, time is most often used to convey how powerful a person is. Someone in authority may show that his/her time is more important than that of the visitors by making them wait. 7. Language of touch Language of touch also known as Haptics can also be used to expressed what cannot be said. It is also one of the most powerful of the types of non- verbal communication. Unlike the other types, in Haptics, there is contact between the sender and the receiver of the message. Touch can comfort, encourage, dissuade, or aggravate. Paralanguage Paralanguage refers to the “how” of saying something other than what is said. The meaning of words spoken depends on how they are said. Tones, voices, and rhythm must match the content of the message if the message is to be understood at all; they reinforce the message. The words with strong points to deliver must be emphasized with strong paralanguage. 8. Posture and Body Orientation Posture and body orientation are also a type of non-verbal communication. How one stands or sits tells the people around how one sees oneself as a speaker, how he/she sees the listeners, and his attitude toward the message. One can communicate numerous messages by the way he walks. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward may mean that one is approachable, friendly, and receptive. Rarely does communication take place without being accompanied or substituted by any of these types of non-verbal communication. One must always remember that all of these are culture-bound or specific to some cultures but not in others. Communication breakdown takes place when culture concepts clash or simply do not meet. EXAMINING SAMPLE ORAL COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES Functions of Communication  1. CONTROL OR REGULATION. Communication functions to control behavior. Every organization has its regulations and these regulations are communicated to all members in various ways. For example: 1. A small organization such as a family has its house rules which every member has to follow. 2. The school implements rules which students and other members of the school community are obliged to follow. 3. The dress code in a business organization serves to dictate the style dressing among its members, particularly the employees 4. In the school setting, a security officer may hinder a student or a school visitor from entering. 5. A dean may oblige the faculty members to attend a seminar-workshop. 6. A teacher may require a student to turn off their cell phones. 2. SOCIAL INTERACTION. Communication allows individuals to interact with others. Because of the needs to interact daily, people communicate. For example: 1. A student has to talk with his parents regarding his allowance and school requirements. 2. He has to talk to the driver of a jeepney or bus, or to the train ticketing clerk. 3. In school, it is inevitable for him not to converse with his teachers, classmates, schoolmates, school employees, and officials. 3. MOTIVATION. Communication motivates or encourages people to live better. Motivation is either internal or external. INTERNAL MOTIVATION comes from within. It is something personal. Example: A student is motivated to study hard because of his/her desire to graduate with honors. EXTERNAL MOTIVATION emanates from the outside or from people surrounding him. Example: A student is motivated to study hard because of his/her father's promise to give him/her an expensive car once he/she graduates with honors. Encouraging words serve to stimulate people to perform or do better, that is, to motivate them in a positive way. Example: 1. A breast cancer patient may desire to live longer after he/she hears words of hope from his/her loved ones. 2. A failing student may continue pursuing his/her chosen career path the moment he/she hears words of encouragement from the school's guidance counselor. 4. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION. Communication facilitates people's expression of their feelings and emotions. Example: When one informs another about an impending super typhoon, the informer may express various emotions in different situations. 1. As he/she informs his/her loved ones, he/she may show fear because their house is not a safe place to stay when there is an emergency like a typhoon. 2. He/She may show love or concern as he/she informs them for them to get ready for the calamity. 3. He/She may show joy and excitement as he/she envisions another day of no classes or a grand vacation. 5. INFORMATION DISSEMINATION. Communication functions to convey information. Many events or incidents happen every day. These occurrences affect people so they have to be informed. Example: 1. A new policy to be implemented in school has to be made known to all members before its implementation. 2. The leader draws plans for executing the safety protocols 3. A student leader talks about how to help fellow members who are in need of financial assistance. TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT Intrapersonal Communication refers to communication that centers in one person where the speaker acts both as the sender and the receiver of message. Interpersonal Communication refers to communication between and among people and establishes personal relationship between and among them. Dyadic Communication nvolves only two (2) participants forming the dyad. One speaker and listener come together to exchange information, ideas, thoughts or opinions. The role of both the speaker and listener is not fixed, either interchangeable. Examples of these are conversation, interview, and dialogue. Small Group Communication requires 3 to 15 people discussing a problem or an issue and looking for a sensible solution and plan to address such problem or issue. This type of communication has an agenda at hand and needs to accomplish something. Rules are being followed to facilitate order considering that anyone from the group can be both a speaker and a listener. This group can sometimes regard as a study or task – oriented group. Study Groups are meant to look into a problem while Task – Oriented Groups study an issue and arrive at a plan to resolve such issue. Examples of small group communication are symposia, round table and panel discussion, and small group meetings. Public Communication refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the message before or in front of a group. The message can be driven by informational or persuasive purposes. The voice is loud and the gestures are expansive because the audience is big. Mass Communication refers to communication that takes place through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types of media. Organizational Communication refers to the interaction of members along the links in an organizational structure. Two variations of Organizational Communication Formal Organizational Communication uses the proper channels graphically illustrated by an organizational chart. Informal Organizational Communication bypasses the links, skips forward, or backwards, or even goes sideways just to achieve the same goal. Intercultural Communication is the exchange of concepts, traditions, values, and practices between and among people of different nationalities and ways of life. TYPES OF SPEECHES Informative Speech An informative speech is given for the purpose of providing information about a topic to the audience. To write an informative speech, you first choose a topic-either one that you already know about or one that you are willing to research and learn about. Then, you outline and draft your informative speech  based on the topic, key points, and details and information you want to give about your topic. Make sure you catch your audience's attention and that you summarize key points and "take-aways" as you go. The main types of informative speeches include definition, descriptive, explanatory, and demonstrative. 1. A definition speech explains the meaning, theory, or philosophy of a specific topic that the audience likely does not know much about. The topics may be general, such as a sport, or highly specific, like a particular person. The main goal of this speech is to educate the audience so that they understand the main points regarding this subject. 2. A demonstration speech explains how to do something. If you have ever sat through a lecture where a teacher explained how to create a bibliography, then you have heard a demonstration speech. Like most informative speeches, a how-to speech will likely use visual examples that show the audience how to move from step to step through a particular activity. Visualizations help the audience retain what each step looks like, increasing the likelihood that they will retain the overall information of the speech. 3. An explanatory speech might give a description of the state of a given topic. As an example, consider the types of speeches that are given at industry conferences. The goal of these speeches is for the speaker to inform the audience on a particular part of an industry. Commonly, these will also utilize visualizations that give the audience a visual representation of the particular data or statistics contained in the speech. This is one way to condense highly complex information into an easily retainable package for the audience. 4. A descriptive speech creates a vivid picture in a person's mind regarding an object, person, animal, or place. An archaeologist who has discovered a new temple in South America or a paleontologist who believes they have found a new dinosaur may use a descriptive speech to inform an interested audience about their recent discoveries. As all of these types make clear, there are many ways that a given set of information can be communicated in a speech. When deciding what type of informative speech you want to write and deliver, consider what you want the audience to know about your topic. Examples: 1. College professor lecturing on a specific topic during a class 2. Guest speaker presenting information to a group of students about how to apply for college 3. Company president presenting information about last quarter's sales to a group of board members Persuasive Speech A persuasive speech is given for the purpose of persuading the audience to feel a certain way, to take a certain action, or to support a specific view or cause. To write a persuasive speech, you choose a topic about which people disagree or can have differing opinions. Your persuasive argument will be made stronger if you can demonstrate that you are passionate about the topic and have a strong opinion one way or the other. Then, you outline and draft your persuasive speech by taking a position on the topic and outlining your support for your position. It is often helpful to also discuss why the "other side" is incorrect in their beliefs about the topic. Make sure you catch your audience's attention and that you summarize key points and "take-aways" as you go. Examples: 1. A teenager attempting to convince her parents that she needs to be able to stay out until 11pm instead of 10pm 2. A student council president trying to convince school administrators to allow the students to have a dance after the final football game of the season 3. A lawyer giving a closing argument in court, arguing about whether the defendant is innocent or guilty of the crime Inspirational Speech This is a kind of speech that convinces people they can succeed in life. This speech includes uplifting stories that the speaker thinks the people listening to it will be moved and inspired to do greater and better things in their life. Entertainment Speech The primary purpose of the speech is to entertain, to have the audience relax, smile and enjoy the occasion. The speech should have a central theme or a focus. The sole purpose is to have the audience enjoy the presentation. There are many ways to entertain the audience. You can tell jokes, tell funny stories, dramatize an anecdote tell a scary story Common Forms of Entertainment Topics 1. The after-dinner speech is a form of speaking where a speaker takes a serious speech topic (either informative or persuasive) and injects a level of humor into the speech to make it entertaining. 2. A ceremonial speech is a type of entertaining speech where the specific context of the speech is the driving force of the speech. Common types of ceremonial speeches include introductions, toasts, and eulogies. 3. Inspirational speeches are based in emotion with the goal to motivate listeners to alter their lives in some significant way. This speech is one where the speaker's primary goal is to inspire her or his audience. ARGUMENTATIVE - An argumentative text presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is presented more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the speaker, and what side he supports the most. TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in public. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular language are used. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must in this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or President and his/her constituents. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way. Examples are sermons by priests and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President, formal speeches, or pronouncements by judges. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to country or flag. TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS  Speech Acts are actions done by saying them. The listener must first determine the type of act being performed before he can determine which way a speech act is to be interpreted. These speech acts are categorized as follows: Locutionary Acts Locutionary acts are, according to Susana Nuccetell and from Gary Seay (from Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics) 2007, “the mere act of producing some linguistic sounds or marks with a certain meaning and reference.". Locutionary act refers to any utterances that may contain statements or words about objects. It may be a word, or even a phrase that has a meaning. For example: “It is raining.” “My teacher is wearing a red dress today.” “I love dogs.” Illocutionary Acts Illocutionary act is the acting part of the speech act. It carries a directive for the audience. It may be a command, an apology, an expression of thankfulness or just an answer to a question for the information of other people in the communication process. There are two kinds of illocutionary acts. The first is called constantive, or making something true or false by saying it. This is commonly done by someone in authority like a judge or an official. Examples: I name this dog Chubby. You are free to leave. You are not my friend anymore. The meeting is adjourned. The second is doing something by just saying it. It is also called performative. Examples: I nominate Lancer for president. I accept the challenge. I promise to take care of you as long as I live. I challenge you to prove me wrong. You are invited to my birthday celebration. Illocutionary acts can be categorized into common families of speech acts. The following is John Searle’s categories of illocutionary acts. Each has its own illocutionary purpose. 1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of a proposition like boasting, suggesting, asserting, concluding, and swearing Example: I am still the best student in class. 2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee perform an action by way of commanding, requesting, begging, inviting, pleading, or insisting Example: Take me to that place. 3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to future actions such as promising, planning, vowing, and betting Example: I will take you to school every day starting tomorrow. 4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional reactions. Some examples of expressive acts are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and deploring Example: I am so sorry for not wearing the complete uniform today. 5. Declarative – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in an external situation. Simply put, declarations bring into existence, or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, and bidding Example: You are fired!