Reviewer Finals - Completed (Pasend kay anek, baka need nya) - PDF

***UTS*** ***THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES*** - **Self -- Discovery** -- The process of learning, understanding, or knowing more about yourself and who you are - **Self -- Awareness** -- Your knowledge of yourself and your worth as a person **What's in a name?** - It represen...

***UTS*** ***THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES*** - **Self -- Discovery** -- The process of learning, understanding, or knowing more about yourself and who you are - **Self -- Awareness** -- Your knowledge of yourself and your worth as a person **What's in a name?** - It represents who we are, signify us. - Self is thought to be more than just the name. - Self is something that a person perennially molds, shapes, and develops. The self is not static. ***CONCEPT AND NATURE OF THE SELF: WHO AM I?*** - **S.E.L.F** -- Social, Environmental. and other Life Factors **What is Personality?** - Defined as one that is made up of the **characteristic\ patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors** that make a **person unique**. - Personality came from the Greek word **\'persona\'** which means **mask worn by actors** in the theater. We are all actors in the theater called life. ***ISSUES OF THE SELF*** - **Self-understanding** is a journey. There will always be new things to discover about yourself - **Nature** is often defined as **genetic** or hormone-based behaviors, traits, and dispositions. - **Nurture** refers to all the **environmental variables** that impact who we are - We can safely assume that the Self is **BOTH** a product of Nature and Nurture. ***SELF VS. IDENTITY*** - **Self**: "the person that someone normally or truly is or the entire person of an individual". - **Identity**: refers to "the qualities, beliefs, etc., that make a particular person or group different from others or the distinguishing character or personality of an individual ***WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?*** - **The Mother of All Disciplines** because all fields of study began as philosophical discourses. It originated is from the Greek words ***Philo- *(loving)** and ***Sophia *(knowledge, wisdom).** - Means** "loving knowledge" **or** "loving wisdom.**" The term philosophy as originally used by the Greeks meant **"the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.**"  - Is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live in. ***WHAT PHILOSOPHY SAYS ABOUT THE SELF*** - The *Self* has been defined as "as a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency - The Philosophy of the self has been defined through distinct philosophical lenses: 1. Empiricism - derives explanations of the self from sensory and bodily responses. 2. Rationalism - there is innate knowledge; they differ in that they choose different objects of innate knowledge. 3. Dualism - In the modern world "dualism" most often refers to "mind-body dualism," or the idea that the mind is separate from the body. A. ***THE CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY *** 1. **SOCRATES: *"The unexamined life is not worth living" *** - - 1. **Physical body** - is a tangible aspect of us 2. **So**ul - which Socrates believed to be immortal, is eternal, unchanging, perfect, or ideal. - 2. **PLATO: ***"**The first and the best victory is to conquer self."** * - - 1. **Reason** - our divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal 2. **Physical Appetite** - our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual 3. **Will or Spirit** - is our basic emotion or passion, such as empathy, aggressiveness, love, anger. 3. **ARISTOTLE: *"Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom."*** - 4. **JOHN LOCKE: *\"The Self Is Consciousness\"*** 1. 2. 5. **IMMANUEL KANT:** ***\"We Construct the Self\'*** - - B. ***THE MODERN TIMES*** 1. **GILBERT RYLE:** **\"*The Self Is How You Behave\".*** - - - 2. **MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY: \"*The Self is An Embodied Subjectivity\"*** - - ***PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF*** **What is Psychology?** - Defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. - Delves into the physiological aspect that speaks of an organism's physical processes and the cognitive aspect that deals with an organism's thinking process. - Psychology is derived from two Greek words, psyche meaning soul/mind; and logos meaning study". In ancient times, it is defined as the study of souls. **Psychology and the Self** - Focuses on the representation of an individual based on his/her experiences, either from the home, school, and other groups, organizations, or affiliations he/she engaged in. **William James: *The Me-Self /I-Self Theory:*** 1. The \'**I**\' self-corresponds to the self as an object of experience (self as object) or the self as known 2. The \"**Me**\" refers to everything that can create excitement or a sense of personal experience, characterized by qualities like \"me-ness\" and \"mine-ness.\" It consists of three components: material, social, and spiritual. - Can be separated into three categories, The Constituents of the Self: 1. **The Material Self** is constituted by our bodies, clothes, immediate family, and home. 2. **The Social Self** is based on our interactions with society and the reaction of people towards us. 3. **The Spiritual Self** is our inner self or our psychological self. **Carl Rogers\' Self Theory: *Real Self and Ideal Self:*** - **Theory Of Personality Development** was based on humanistic psychology. He stated that everyone exists in a\ world full of experiences. These experiences shape our reactions that include external objects and people. - Carl Rogers believed that we all own a **real self** and an **ideal self:** - The real self of course is what intrinsically we are. - The ideal self, is the self that we think\ we want to be ***THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF*** **What is Sociology?** - Sociology is the study of the role of society in shaping behavior.  - The sociological perspective of the self looks into **self as a social construction**, essentially who you are as a person - Through** socialization**, we develop our personalities and potentialities with the influence of our culture and society.  **The Self as a Social Construction** - **Social construction** means that individuals develop a sense of self-based on how they think other people **see and judge them.** They incorporate these ideas into their sense of self. - **Socialization** is the process of learning one's culture and how to live within it., An individual learns to adjust to a group and behave in a way that is approved by the group.  **The Self and the Social Agencies** - Our development is largely influenced by the membership to crucial social groups that shape various aspects of our self. - **Social Agencies**: Family, School, and Communities **George Herbert Mead: The "I\" Self and \"Me\" Self-Theory** - ***George Herbert Mead***: - An American Sociologist, - The Father of American pragmatism - Two Sides of the Self: The "I" and the "Me" Self - The "Me" are the characteristics, behavior, and or actions done by a person that follows the "generalized others" that person interacts with. - The "I" is the reaction of the individual to the attitude of others, as well as the manifestation of the individuality of the person. - The 'me' and 'I' have didactic relationship **Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self Theory** - The looking-glass self describes the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. - Using social interaction as a type of "mirror," people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior. ***THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE*** - Culture influences what will affect you emotionally, as well as how you express yourself, such as showing your feelings in public or keeping it private. - **Sir Edward B. Taylor**, **founder of cultural anthropology**, defined. Culture as \'a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, law, customs, arts, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a human as a member of society. - There are two components of culture that are essential in understanding how the self is being influenced by it: 1. **Material culture** consists of human technology - all the things that people make and use.  2. **Non-material culture** includes intangible human creations like beliefs, values, norms, morals, rules, language, and organizations. ***THE SELF AND THE PERSON IN CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY*** - Anthropology is the **study of people and cultures in the past and today** - There are **four branches of Anthropology:** 1. **Archeology** -- is the study of how people lived in the past.  2. **Physical Anthropology **-- is the study of human biology, including how people adapt to where they live and how bodies changed over time (human evolution). 3. **Linguistic anthropology **-- is the study of how people speak and the words they use and how their language developed and evolved. 4. **Cultural anthropology **-- is the study of how people live their lives in the present and how they may have lived in the past ***THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE SELF*** - **Psychology** will help you understand human behavior and mental processes and allow you to better understand how we think act and feel. **The Self from Eastern and Western Thought** - Filipinos often see Western cultures as superior, a belief from colonial history. But just as Filipinos like Western food, Westerners also enjoy Filipino food and culture. Both Eastern and Western cultures appreciate each other and have rich traditions and wise philosophers. ***THE SELF IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE*** **What is Psychology?** - Psychology is commonly defined **as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes**. - It delves into the **physiological aspect **that speaks of an organism's physical processes and the **cognitive aspect **that deals with an organism's thinking process.  **Brief History of Psychology** - Early psychology began from **philosophy** and **biology**, with roots in **ancient Greek thinkers** like **Aristotle** and **Socrates**. Psychology became a separate field in **1879** when **Wilhelm Wundt** opened the **first experimental psychology lab** in **Leipzig, Germany**. Over time, different schools of thought developed to explain the mind and behavior, with some dominating the field for a while. **Psychology and the Self** - The Psychology of self focuses on the representation of an individual based on his/her experiences. These experiences are either from the home, school, and other groups, organizations, or affiliations he/she engaged in. ***THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL THOUGHT*** - The Western culture basically is about the focus on oneself and personal needs - Western culture is predicated on egoism - Eastern culture is about focus on others and the feeling of others. - Eastern culture is about collectivism **The Oriental Thought** 1. **Hinduism** - Brahman (refers to the highest universal principle, also called the ultimate) is an absolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit) is the true knowledge of self. Vedanta (Its basic teaching is that our real nature is divine) characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes continually). 2. **Buddhists** - there is no atman (soul or spirit), no eternal Self, that could accompany or exist behind the rebirth process of individual consciousness. 3. **Confucian doctrines** - are anchored in the golden rule of "Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you". 4. **Taoism** - believes that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature should govern one\'s life. ***THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE SELF*** 1. Sex and Gender 2. Weight 3. Height 4. Skin Complexion 5. Hair 6. Facial Features **What science says about the self** **2 Scientific Approaches:** 1. **Physical Science** -- Biological Factors (Make up the body) 2. **Social Science** -- Culture, Interpersonal Relationships **Sciences which contribute to *Physical Science*** 1. **Neurophilosophy** -- As to **Paticia Churchland** -- The Idea of Nature and Mental Process 2. Psychoneuroimmunology -- How our Immune system functions, how stressful events affect our Immune System **Sciences which contribute to *Social Science*** 1. **Psychology** -- Human Behavior 2. **Sociology** -- Study of Collective behavior of people within society 3. **Anthropology** -- Science of human beings and their ancestors 4. **Political Science** -- Participation of Individual in establishing and making political changes 5. **Economics** -- Analyzes the production, Distribution, and consumption of goods and services **Biological and Environmental Factors** 1. **Heredity** -- Traits of parents to offspring 2. **Genotype** -- Genetics make up of offspring 3. **Maturation** -- Completion of growth, personal and behavioral character **To Achieve Physical well-being:** 1. Eat Healthy Food 2. Maintain Healthy Lifestyle 3. Proper Hygiene 4. Engage in Daily Exercise 5. Take Vitamins and Drink Fruit juice 6. Avoid Stress 7. Less time Infront of Computers and Gadgets **The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-Esteem** - **Self-esteem **is all about how much you feel you are worth -  Coined by William James in 1800 - **Body image **is how you view your physical self  - **Appearance **refers to everything about a person that others can observe **What are the different forms of beauty?** - **Physical beauty **-- What is seem - **Non-physical beauty** -- What can be felt ***SEXUAL SELF*** - According to **Sigmund Freud**: - Is all human behavior which is motivated by the desire to feel pleasure - Is controlled by 2 Instincts: 1. **Sexuality** -- Capacity for sexual feelings 2. **Aggression** -- Hostile/Destructive behavior due to frustration **Sexual** **Characteristics: Physical Changes** - Happens during Adolescence - 3 Stages of Adolescence: 1. **Early Adolescence: *10-13*** 2. **Middle Adolescence: *14-17*** 3. **Late Adolescence: *18-21+*** - Physical Changes due to Hormones - **Testosterone** -- Male Sex Hormone - **Estrogen/Progesterone** -- Female Sex Hormone **Physical Changes (*Male*)** 1. Increase In Height 2. Development of Adams Apple 3. Deepening of Voice 4. Widening of Shoulders 5. Development of Facial/ Armpit, and Pubic Hair **Physical Changes (*Female*)** 1. Increase of Height/Weight 2. Onset of Menstruation 3. Development of Hips/Breast **Growth Change** - Male: Happens before 16-17 (10-13cm) - Female: Happens before 15-17 (7cm) **Concept Of Helen Fisher** - Gave 3 Steps of knowing what Is love 1. Attraction -- Increase in Attention, Passionate/Obsessive love - Because of the ff Hormones: 1. Dopamine (Feel good Hormone) 2. Adrenaline 3. Serotonin (Attributed to feeling in love) 2. Lust -- Libido / Sex Drive -- Desire for sexual gratification 3. Attachment -- Situationship -- Wanting a label :) **Terminologies** 1. **Masturbation** -- Stimulation of one's genitals 2. **Pre-Marital Sex** -- Sexual Intercourse before marriage 3. **Marital sex** -- Sexual activity done by married couples 4. **Extra Marital Sex** -- When a married couple has sex with someone that is not their Husband/Wife 5. **Homosexuality** -- Sexual attraction of a person to the same gender 6. **Heterosexuality** -- Romantically attracted to a person of opposite sex **Method of Contraception: 4 Methods** I. **FOLK METHOD** 1. **Post Coital Douche** - Cleaning the vagina/penis with water after Intercourse thinking that by cleaning the egg and sperm will not meet 2. **Prolonged Lactation** - Lactation -- Production of Milk - Breastfeed babies are stronger because it enhances their Immune system II. **BEHAVIORAL METHOD** 1. **Calendar Method** -- Menstrual Cycle (28 Days) 2. **Ovulation Method** -- 14 Days before your menstrual Period 3. **Withdrawal Method** -- 2 Kinds: - Coitus Interruptus -- The man would 'pull out' before orgasm - Coitus Reservatus/Sexual Continence -- When a man would NOT attempt to ejaculate during Intercourse III. **MECHANICAL METHOD** 1. **Condoms** -- Male/Female condoms are not completely safe 2. **Diaphragm** -- Silicone Contraceptive inserted in the vagina to cover the cervix 3. **Cervical Cup** -- Prevents the sperm from entering the uterus IV. **CHEMICAL METHOD** 1. **IUD** (Intra Uterine Device) -- Inserted Inside the Uterus 2. **Pills** 3. **Sterilization** -- Vasectomy (Male) - Tuba ligation (Female) **Consequences of Sexual Choice** 1. Early Pregnancy / Teenage Pregnancy 2. STD (Sexually Transmitted Disease) 3. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) -- Starts with STD **4 Pillars of Family Planning** 1. **Responsible Parenting** 1. Will / Ability to respond to the needs / Aspirations of the family 2. **Respect for Life** 2. 1987 Constitution of the Philippines -- Would protect the life of the unborn infant from the moment of conception 3. **Birth Spacing** -- Proper birth spacing is ideally 2-3 years 4. **Informed Choice** -- informed choice of family planning, the couple should be informed of different contraception **Responsible Sexual Behavior** 1. **Respect for one's Body** -- Avoiding Activities that could undermine your body (Ex. Wearing short clothes) 2. **Maturity in thoughts and deeds** -- Be objective and Rational, you should always see the pros. And cons. Of what you do 3. **Be future Oriented** -- Think of the Long-term situation, Think of your FUTURE 4. **Be guided by your personal beliefs and your core values** -- Always be guided of the consequence, do not indulge in things you might regret in the future ***MATERIAL SELF*** **Needs and Wants** - Needs are the things that we cannot live without - Wants are things that we just like but not necessarily our needs. **William James** 3. Material Self is composed of our bodies, Clothes, Family, and other things we consider our own 1. **I-Self** -- Thinking of the self, is the one reflecting the soul of a person or the mind which is also called the **Pure Ero** 2. **Me-Self / Empirical Self** -- Refers to the persons individual Experience - Sub-cat: material, Social, and Spiritual Self **Compositions of the Material Self** 1. **Bodily Self** -- Composed of the intimate parts of the person includes: Physical, Psychological, and Moral 2. **Extended Self** -- Includes people of significant Importance, possessions, places, and products of our labor **Material Possessions** 4. Objects if Instinctive preference 5. Which may / may not be related to a person's interest **4 Dimensions of the Material Self** 1. Material Self Projection 2. Materialistic Evaluation of other 3. Emotional Self Assurance 4. Self -Deservingness **Consumer Culture** 1. **Shopaholic** - A Psychological Disorder - A Person who likes to spend / Shop even though they don't have the budget 2. **Consumerism** - The Inclination to consume and keep consuming - To buy and own more things or stuff ***THE SPIRITUAL ASPECT OF THE SELF*** **Spirituality** - The root meaning of spirituality is taken from the Latin word spiritus, meaning breath or life force. - is connected with religion - **Spirituality** is a natural aspect of our self-development.  **Spirituality and Religion** - A religious person is someone who believes in a god or group of gods and consciously adheres to the beliefs of his or her religion. - A spiritual person on the other hand places little importance on beliefs and traditions and is more concerned with growing and experiencing the Divine. - **Religare** -- Bond between Man and God - **John Cuper** -- Stated that religion is culturally "Entrenched" - **Emile Durkheim** -- Religion is a united system of Beliefs / Practices **Elements of Tradition** 1. **Sacred** -- Refers to phenomena's that are recorded as extraordinary 2. **Rituals** -- Formal patterns of Activities that express a symbolical shared meaning 3. **Doctrines** -- Stories which Provide a framework for religious beliefs and practices 4. **Symbols** -- Signs, Objects, or places that represent a special religious meaning 5. **Text** -- Oral or written literature which records a essential part of a religious tradition 6. **Beliefs** -- Religion Ideas / Concepts held to be true **Conflicting Perspective Regarding Religion** 1. **Religious Syncretism** -- Combination of Different forms of Beliefs and Practices 2. **Ominism** -- The Respect for all beliefs of all religion 3. **Religious Practices** -- Example: Visita Iglesia, Fasting, Etc. 4. **Karl Marx** -- "The world would be better without Religion", Religion is why the wealthy powerful group remain in their position **Different Religion** **RELIGION** **POPULATION** **GOD** **BIBLE** ------------------------------------------------ ------------------------- --------------------------- -------------- Christianity 2.2B Jesus Christ Holy Bible Islam 1.57B Allah Qur'an/Kuran Wearing Hijab (Women) Means 1 True God Practice Ramadan Hinduism 1.2B Many Gods Veda Conditions of our present life is due to Karma Buddhism 488M Siddhartha Gautama Buddha Tripitaka Buddha -- The Awakened One Judaism 15.7M Yahweh Tanakh Rest/Worship Day -- Sabbath Day Symbol -- Star of David **Connections with Nature** - Our spiritual self is not only tied to our connection with God and other people; it is also related to how we commune with nature. As is stated in the Bible, "we are appointed as stewards of God's creation" and this implies our responsibility to take care of nature and the world, in general. **Affinity with Nature** - **Affinity** with nature can be defined as "**the ties that bind people and nature together.**" It can also mean nature connectedness, defined as "**the extent to which individuals include nature as part of their identity**." - **Ecopsychology** - Is concerned with "fundamental interconnections between humans and natural world through a phenomenological and sensorial link, and integration of practices based on the notion that direct contact with the natural world has healing potential." **POLITICAL SELF** - Politics - Activities associated with the government - Political Culture - Are patterns of individual attributes or orientation towards politics - Family ties (Political Dynasty) - Sense of over dependency - relying too much on someone of higher power - Euphemism (figure of speech) - mild indirect word which is used to substitute the vulgar words used - Corrupt - Lord Michael Nolan initiated the \"Nolan Principles\" which aims to eliminate corruption in the government principles are: 1. selflessness (care of other people's needs beside your own), 2. Objectivity (Being neutral or unbiased), 3. Integrity (maintaining good nature and character), 4. Honesty (simply telling the truth for the government to uphold it they use SALN \"Statement of assets, liability, and networking\" it is a document pertaining of all their assets and liability ) 5. Accountability (Liable and responsible for our actions) 6. Openness (Transparency) 7. Leadership - Lack of Political Maturity (We only elect politicians who are popular or wealthy) - Utang na loob (Debt of gratitude, repaying any favor) **Democracy** - System of government in which all citizens are eligible members of the state **Basic features of Democracy** - Rule of the Majority - Protection of Human rights (Right to life, right to liberty, and right to property) - Uphold the rule of Law \"Constitution\" ------------------------- ----------------------- Positive Values Negative Values Bayanihan - Comaraderie Bahalan na Damayan - Empathy Colonial mentality Hospitality Crab Mentality Flexibility Filipino Time Close Family ties Mañana Habit Religious Ningas Kugon Respect for Elders Lack of Sportsmanship Innovative Imitation Pakikisama ------------------------- ----------------------- **DIGITAL SELF** - Digital Self - how a person expresses himself in various online platforms **THEME FOR DIGITAL SELF** - **Digital Access** - Full electronic participation in the society - **Problems** - Expensive and Slow - **Solution** - More variety/More Telecom - **Telecommunications in the Philippines** - Globe, Smart, Dito, etc. - **Digital Commerce** - Electronic buying/Selling of goods - **Digital Communication** - Electronic exchange of communication/information - **Digital Literacy** - Process of teaching/Learning and the use of tech - **Digital Etiquette** - Electronic standards of conduct and Procedure - **Digital Law** - Digital responsibility for our actions and deeds - **Digital Rights/Responsibilities** - The freedom extended to everyone in the digital world - **Digital Health and Wellness** - Physical and Psychological well-being in the digital world - **Digital Security** - Electronic precautions to guarantee safety **SELF REGULATED LEARNING** - One's ability to understand and control one\'s learning environment - According to Barry Zimmerman - SRL Is the process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts, behaviors, and emotions - We control these things to reach our goals - According to the Theory of John Locke - John Locke was the was the one who made the gold setting theory - individuals who set specific and difficult goals performs better **Different Dimensions of SRL** 1. **Observable Behavior** - what we observe among others 2. **Motivation** - What do you want to happen in the future and what is our step-by-step goals 3. **Cognition/Cognitive Strategies** - Things that you will learn from now on **SRL would include the ff:** 1. **Goal Setting** - \"What is your goal atm?\" 2. **Self-Monitoring** - \"What do I to achieve such a goal?\" 3. **Self-Instruction** - \"Tutorials\" 4. **Self-Reinforcement** - \"plan a, b, and c\" 5. **SMART** - Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Time-based **Strategies to Achieve SRL** 1. **Make a plan** - A plan makes things organized 2. **Decide on the amount of time to spend on that activity** - Determine how long you\'ll need to achieve such activity 3. **Choosing what to do first** - Prioritize what you should do first then the second, third, and so **GOAL SETTING** Definitions By: 1. **Albert Bandura** - Initiated the **Social Cognitive Theory** - refers to a person's belief and ability to be able to succeed in specific situations - Ways to strengthen self-efficacy: 1. **Mastery Experiences** - Direct Experiences that a person would acquire. 2. **Vicarious Experience** - Observation of people and refer them as role models. 3. **Verbal Persuasion** - Motivation coming from influential people. 4. **Emotional/Physiological State** - The emotional and Physiological condition that a person is in to. 2. **Carl Dweck** - Initiated the **Mindset Theory** - implicit theory that individuals hold regarding the intelligence and behavior. - 2 Kinds: 5. **Fixed Mindset** - Fixed perception of the self 6. **Growth Mindset/Theory** - Talent or Intelligence that is developed through Effort, Learning, Training, and Practice. 3. **Julian Rotter** - **Initiated the Expectancy Theory** - Focus on the expectations that shape a particular behavior in a particular situation - Divided into 2: 1. **Internal** - Events that are controlled by your own efforts 2. **External** - Events that are determined by external forces **SUCCESS** - Feeling of fulfillment of an aspiration or desire - 8 Categories: 1. **Mental Success** - Understanding and Accepting one\'s intellectual Ability 2. **Personal Success** - Overcoming physical and psychological limitations 3. **Financial Success** - Achieving your financial stability 4. **Social Success** - Respect and recognition in the community 5. **Physical Success** -- Possession of the desired qualities in one's body 6. **Family Success** - Harmonious and Happy Family 7. **Career Success** - Achieving the milestone in your career 8. **Spiritual Success** - Having a sound body and Spirit **STRESS** - Reaction to the Physiological/Psychological self to demand or threat - **Common stressors:** 1. Life threatening experiences/Catastrophic Events 2. Life changes and strains 3. Chronic Problems 4. Everyday Hassles - **Causes of Stress:** 1. Financial Problems 2. Personal Relationship 3. Daily Life 4. Parenting 5. Work - **Perennial Stressors in the Philippines** (A problem that has not been solved) 1. Public Transportation and Traffic Problems 2. Frequent increase in the price of commodities and services 3. Unfinished projects - **Physical Symptoms of Stress** 1. Inability to sleep 2. Over fatigue 3. Headache 4. Cramps 5. Unpleasant Aura - **Emotional/Behavioral Symptoms** 1. Lack of concentration 2. Irritation 3. Lack of Appetite 4. Mood swings 5. Panic Attacks 6. Nervousness **SELF CARE** - An activity that a person does that a person does to maintain and improve the ff dimensions: 1. **Physical** -- Activities that you do to improve the physical well-being 2. **Psychological** - Activities that a person to resolve mental health issues 3. **Emotional** - Activities that a person does to cope with stress and deal with grief 4. **Social** - Activities that a person does to connect with people valuable to him 5. **Spiritual** - Activities that a person does to strengthen his relationship to God and his beliefs **PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION** **Language: ** According to Linguists, language will be called a language if there is a: 1. **System of rules** 1. 2. **Sound System (phonology)** 1. 3. **Vocabulary (lexicon)** 1. **Things to Remember:** - **Speech Community** - group of people who **share similar ideas and use norms of language.** - **Language Acquisition** - process wherein people **acquire the languages** used by those in the community. - **Language Learning **process wherein people **learn second languages** by studying formally in school or informally on their own. - **Language Contact** - process wherein **people try to understand each other** or to **communicate**. - **Language Change -** individuals constantly interact and communicate with each other and the result of the language contact. **Why is it important to know the process of communication?** - To help you understand the how the process works  Communication Models - -  - - - - - - A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated with medium confidence - - - -  **General Principles of Effective Communication** - - - - - **Types of Communication** - - - - - - - **Modes of Communication** - Refers to the channel through which one expresses his/her communicative intent - Conveys his/her thoughts - Views or feelings can be communicated through face-to-face interaction, video, audio, and text-based **A. Face-to-face interaction** - The advantage of f2f is that it can note visual **cues through facial expressions, gestures**, **movements or even objects or realia**.  - - - **B. Video** - Convenient for those who are in different areas however the disadvantage is the time zone difference between countries. **C. Audio** - The downside of this mode is not being able to see the body language or cues of the person you are talking to especially listening to people with accents. **D. Text-based communication**       This mode does not provide video and audio benefits, but it has a wider reach and can disseminate information to a bigger audience quickly. **Forms of Communication** - **Intrapersonal Communication **- within or inside - **Interpersonal Communication **-- between, among, and together. **Public Communication** - This means **communication using any type of media to the public,** or any other form of public political advertising. **Globalization and Global ** - These are terms associated with realities outside the territories of the nation-state. - Is the process by which people and goods move easily across borders.   - Principally, it\'s an economic concept -- the integration of markets, trade, and investments with few barriers to slow the flow of products and services between nations. **Intercultural Communication** - Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two different cultures. - **Communicating Across Cultures by Carol Kinsey Goman** - - - - - - - - - **Varieties of English** **Three circles:**  - - - **World Englishes (WE)** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **EXPLANATION ESSAY** - An explanation essay explains a particular topic, meant to inform or educate. - It should present convincing and adequate support for the explanations provided - **Lingua Franca -** A language that is used as a common means of communication between people who speak different native languages. - **Linguistic Nationalism** - The belief in promoting and prioritizing the use of a nation's own language over foreign languages to foster national identity and unity. - **Cultural Chauvinism -** The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others. - **Conversant -** Familiar or knowledgeable about something, especially through study or experience. - **Siloed Cubicles -** Refers to isolated spaces or environments that prevent interaction or communication with others. - **Crème de la crème -** A French term meaning \"the best of the best\" or the very finest individuals or things. - **Bourgeois Stories** - Refers to stories about the middle class, particularly relating to materialistic values or conventional attitudes. - **Mano-a-mano -** A Spanish term meaning "hand-to-hand," typically used to refer to direct, face-to-face confrontations or competitions. **\"A Mansion of Many Languages\" by Danton Remoto (2017)** - **Prof. Rolando S. Tinio's View on Linguistic Nationalism** - Filipino as a national language doesn't mean eliminating English. Proficiency in English offers access to culture and international mobility, which is valuable for modern life. - **Current Context** - Enrollment in English courses is rising due to demand in teaching and job - **Advantages of Filipino Teachers in ASEAN** - Willing to accept lower pay and Familiarity with both American culture and Southeast Asian cultural practices. - **Mastery of Multiple Languages** - The best students excel in both English and Filipino due to quality teachers and immersion in both languages - **Learning and Writing in Multiple Languages** - Modern Filipino writers are adept in multiple languages (English, Filipino, and regional languages). - It's not a choice between languages but rather an ability to live in a "mansion of many languages." - **Prof. Tinio's Conclusion** - Mastery of one's first language is key to mastering additional languages. - Multilingualism in the Philippines is seen as a \"paradise. **ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY** Research-based Argumentative Essay: - **Definition: This essay presents a clear stance on a contentious issue supported by research. It involves the following steps:** - Formulating a research question (e.g., Should divorce or same-sex marriage be legalized in the Philippines?) - Conducting research, preparing an annotated bibliography, and taking research notes. - Writing the essay with a thesis statement, outlining arguments, and supporting both sides. - **Key Pre-writing Tasks:** - Research Question: A question with two sides (e.g., legalizing same-sex marriage). - Annotated Bibliography: A list of sources, excluding dictionaries, personal blogs, and Wikipedia. - Research Notes: Paraphrases, summaries, and direct quotations, always citing sources. - **Thesis Statement:** Expresses your stand on an issue. - **Outline:** Lists arguments for and against the issue. - **Plagiarism Warning:** Cite all sources; failing to do so leads to plagiarism accusations. **DEBATE** - **Formal Debate:** Structured and follows a set of rules, often seen in schools or legislative bodies. - **Informal Debate:** Less structured, taking place anywhere, and doesn't require two teams (e.g., debating lunch options). - **Skills Needed:** - **Reading:** Improves understanding and perspective. - **Speaking:** Conveys knowledge and can persuade listeners. - **Writing:** Expresses understanding of self and the world. - **Listening:** Essential to build on arguments and refute opposition. - **Ethical Considerations:** Debaters must respect differing ethical viewpoints. - **Dress and Appearance:** Professional attire enhances credibility (e.g., business attire, clean and conservative look). **BUSINESS PROPOSAL** - **Definition**: A document to attract clients or investors by solving a problem they face. It typically includes: - **Problem Statement**: Defines the client\'s issue. - **Proposed Solution**: How your company will solve the problem. - **Costing/Pricing**: Cost of services. - **Key Components**: - **Executive Summary**: Highlights company services and unique selling points. - **Cover Letter & Title Page**: Necessary for formality and clarity. **PROJECT PROPOSAL** - **Definition**: A plan of action presented to secure approval for a project. - **Components**: Similar to a business proposal but may also serve internal company purposes. **ORAL PRESENTATIONS** - **Preparation**: - **Audience Awareness**: Know your listeners' profile and anticipate any conflicts. - **Content**: Include new information relevant to the event's purpose. - **Delivery Techniques**: Start with a shocking statement, a question, or a story, and rehearse thoroughly. - **Verbal and Non-verbal Codes**: - **Paralinguistic Cues**: Facial expressions, gestures, posture, and movement. - **Prosodic Features**: Intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm, which impact comprehension and engagement. - **Presenting in Groups**: Assign roles, practice together, and plan for smooth transitions. - **Overcoming Stage Fright**: Prepare thoroughly, rehearse, and convert anxiety into positive energy. **Major Sections of a Research Journal** 1. **Methodology**\ Explain how you conducted your research. Did you use qualitative or quantitative methods? Did you use surveys, interviews, or fieldwork? Include details on data collection and resources like libraries or archives. 2. **Literature Review**\ Summarize what others have written about your topic. Discuss existing knowledge, how it was acquired, and how your work builds on it. 3. **Main Body/Argument**\ This is the core of your paper. Present and support your thesis with clear reasoning, analysis, and evidence. Stay focused to maintain unity and avoid unnecessary digressions. 4. **Conclusion**\ Summarize your arguments and their significance. A strong conclusion ties everything together and leaves a lasting impression, even if read on its own. 5. **Appendices**\ Include additional materials that expand understanding but don't fit into the main paper. Examples: tables, charts, questionnaires, or historical documents. Appendices go after the main body and are labeled (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B). **Written Modes of Professional Communication** **Traditional Communication Materials:**\ These are formal documents used in professional settings: - **Memoranda**: Brief messages for internal communication, usually reminders or updates. - **Minutes of Meetings**: Summaries of discussions and decisions made during meetings. - **Business Letters**: Formal letters for professional correspondence, structured with a heading, salutation, body, closing, and signature. - **Business Proposals**: Documents aimed at attracting clients or investors by presenting solutions to specific problems, complete with pricing and an executive summary. **Modern Communication Materials:**\ With the rise of technology, social media platforms are now widely used for communication: - **Facebook**: For connecting with people and sharing updates. - **Twitter**: For concise, real-time communication. - **LinkedIn**: For professional networking and job opportunities. **Key Details** **1. Business Letters:** - A formal letter for transactions, unsuitable for oral communication. - Components include: - **Heading**: Conventional (writer\'s address and date) or modern (company letterhead). - **Inside Address**: Recipient's name, title, and company address. - **Salutation**: A formal greeting. - **Body**: Clear and focused content divided into three paragraphs. - **Closing & Signature**: Polite ending and sender's details. **2. Memoranda:** - Used to share important information or instructions within an organization. - Written clearly and concisely, addressing relevant readers only. - Format: - **First Part**: Highlights the main information and purpose. - **Succeeding Part**: Provides supporting details and a clear conclusion. **3. Minutes of Meetings:** - Records key points discussed and decisions made during meetings. - Serves as a reference for future actions or resolutions. **4. Business Proposals:** - Aimed at securing clients or investors by solving specific problems. - Main parts: - **Problem Statement**: Identifies client challenges. - **Proposed Solution**: Explains how the issue will be addressed. - **Costing/Pricing**: Details the cost of services offered. - Includes an executive summary as a selling point, along with a cover letter and title page. **Social Media for Professional Communication** - **Facebook**: Popular for building connections and maintaining relationships. - **LinkedIn**: Focuses on professional networking, job postings, and career-building. - **Twitter & Others**: Used for sharing updates and engaging with a wide audience. In today's workplace, combining traditional and modern communication methods ensures effective information sharing and professional engagement. **JOB INTERVIEW** - All a job interview does is give employers the chance to meet you and see if they like you enough to give you a job. This is part of the hiring process if you are qualified for the position. **Applying for a job** - The application process usually begins with a job advertisement that is made available through various forms, such as newspaper advertisements, radio and/or television broadcasts, and social media posts, as well as through job placement offices in business and educational institutions. - These advertisements list certain requirements that applicants must prepare and submit. The requirements usually include an application form or letter, recommendation letters, school records, and other supporting documents. - After all the requirements are collected and submitted to the employers, depending on the nature of the job, paper-and-pen tests may be scheduled then a job interview is arranged. The job interview is a vital component of the job application process. Therefore, in order to ace the job interview there are these 5 easy steps and you will stand the best chance of getting a job: A. What type of interview is it? The three main types of interviews: 1. **One-to-one interview** -- The most common type\... You are interviewed by just one person (usually the boss!) and it's a simple question-and-answer session. 2. **Panel interview** -- A bit scarier\... This is where you're interviewed by more than one person at a time, expect two or more interviewers to be in the room with you. 3. **Competency interview** -- The most advanced interview type. You'll be tested on different situations e.g. 'Tell me about a time when you showed good teamwork'. B. **What should I wear?** - It may sound silly but you must plan your interview outfit. You don't necessarily have to wear a suit, depending on what job you're going for, but you should follow a few simple dress code rules C. **Practice these interview questions** - YOU MUST PRACTICE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS! OK, that was a bit dramatic, but this is where many people mess up. By just spending a little bit of time looking at common interview questions and answers you can really improve your chances of getting the job D. **Body language in the interview** - It may sound weird but body language has a big part to play in your job interview. For example, if you sit slouched in your chair with your arms crossed you could come across badly, even if your answers are good E. **Don't forget to ask your own questions** - At the end of almost every interview, the interviewer will say to you 'do you have any questions for me?' If you shrug your shoulders and get tongue-tied then you can look uninterested. Go in with a few interview questions of your own prepared, instead. **ETHICS: Morality** - descriptively to refer to certain **codes of conduct put forward by a society or a group** (such as a religion), or accepted by an individual for her own behavior, or - normatively to refer to a **code of conduct that,** given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational people. 1. **Conventional Morality** - - 2. **Critical Morality** - - 1. 2. 3. In conclusion, while conventional morality is based on societal norms and external influences, critical morality is based on individual judgment and internal influences. It\'s important to note that neither approach is inherently superior to the other, and they can often complement each other in guiding moral behavior. **The Branches of Moral Philosophy** **There are three core areas of moral philosophy:** 1. **Value theory** - - What is the good life? - What is worth pursuing for its own sake? - How do we improve our lot in life? - What is happiness, and is it the very same thing as well-being? 2. **Normative ethics** - - What are our fundamental moral duties? - What makes the right actions right? - Which character traits count as virtues, which as vices, and why? - Who should our role models be? 3. **Metaethics** - - - - **Other Normative Systems** In understanding **morality**, we can compare its principles with those of other normative systems. Each of these systems provides a set of standards for how we should behave, offering ideals to strive for and rules not to break. The key systems examined in the text include **Law**, **Etiquette**, **Self-interest**, and **Tradition**. - **Law** - - - - **Etiquette** - - - - **Self-interest** - - - - **Tradition** - - - **The Connection Between Morality and Religion** Many people assume that **morality** and **religion** are inseparable, often believing that moral truths are revealed through religious teachings. This belief is captured in the **Divine Command Theory**, which asserts that God determines what is right and wrong. - **Divine Command Theory**: - - - - - - - **Advantages of Divine Command Theory** 1. Objective Morality: Provides clear standards for right and wrong. 2. Divine Authority: Motivates adherence to ethical behavior. 3. Unity of Morality and Religion: Aligns moral and spiritual life for believers. 4. Clarity: Offers straightforward moral guidelines. 5. Accountability: Emphasizes responsibility to a higher power. **Disadvantages of Divine Command Theory** 1. Euthyphro Dilemma: Questions whether morality is based on divine commands or independent standards. 2. Moral Relativism: May cause differing moral views among religions. 3. Ethical Stagnation: Can hinder moral progress and adaptation. 4. Non-believers: Lacks applicability for those without religious belief. - **Cultural Relativism** - - - - - - - - - - - **Lessons from Cultural Relativism** - - - **Cultural Relativism ** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Advantages of Cultural Relativism** 1. Promotes Tolerance: Encourages respect for diverse cultures. 2. Avoids Ethnocentrism: Challenges superiority claims of one culture over another. 3. Cultural Context: Recognizes that morality is shaped by cultural backgrounds. **Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism** 1. Moral Inconsistency: Makes it hard to condemn harmful practices. 2. Lack of Universal Standards: Undermines global moral principles. 3. Impediment to Reform: Justifies outdated practices as culturally legitimate. Ethical Egoism and Psychological Egoism - Ethical Egoism claims that each person ought to pursue his or her own self-interest exclusively. Ethical Egoism makes a claim about morality, or about the way things should be. - Psychological Egoism, by contrast, asserts that each person does, in fact, pursue his or her own self-interest exclusively. People are self-interested and that our neighbors will not give to charity. Psychological Egoism makes a claim about human nature, or about the way things are. The Revolution in Ethics - Jeremy Bentham (1748--1832) introduced a new way of thinking about morality. He said it's not about pleasing God or following strict rules but about making the world as happy as possible. His idea, the "Principle of Utility," means we should always try to create more happiness than unhappiness. - Bentham's ideas inspired others, like James Mill and his son, John Stuart Mill (1806--1873). John Stuart Mill became a leading voice for utilitarianism, and his book *Utilitarianism* (1861) is still important for studying ethics today. - The Principle of Utility was revolutionary because it rejected traditional ideas about morality. It focused only on increasing happiness in this world, not on following religious rules or ancient laws. According to utilitarianism, morality is about doing whatever brings the most happiness for everyone. The Principle of Utility: the point of morality is the happiness of beings in this world, and nothing more; and we are permitted---even\ required---to do whatever is necessary to promote that happiness. Utilitarianism and real-world issues - The utilitarians wanted their doctrine to matter in practice. So, let's see what Utilitarianism has to say about three real-world issues: euthanasia, use of marijuana, and the treatment of nonhuman animals. This will give us a better sense of the theory. Classical Utilitarianism can be summed up in three propositions: 1. The morality of an action depends solely on the consequences of the action; nothing else matters. 2. An action's consequences matter only insofar as they involve the greater or lesser happiness of individuals. 3. In the assessment of consequences, each individual's happiness gets "equal consideration." - An action is right if it produces the greatest overall balance of happiness over unhappiness. - Three of the greatest philosophers in 19th-\ century England:\ -- Jeremy Bentham (1748--1832),\ -- John Stuart Mill (1806--1873),\ -- and Henry Sidgwick (1838--1900) Is Pleasure all that Matters? - Right actions are those that create the best, and for utilitarians, the ultimate good is happiness. - What is happiness? Classical utilitarians define it as pleasure, including any mental state that feels good. - Hedonism: The idea that pleasure is the ultimate good and pain the ultimate evil has been around since ancient times. - While we value pleasure, we also value things like creativity and friendship---not just because they make us happy, but for their own sake. Philosopher G. E. Moore (1873--1958) suggested three intrinsic goods: pleasure, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyment. Right actions, then, are those that increase these in the world. Are Consequences All That Matter? - Justice. Utilitarianism is incompatible with the ideal of justice. - Rights. Utilitarianism is at odds with the idea that people have rights that may not be trampled on merely because one anticipates good results. On Utilitarianism, an individual's rights may always be trampled upon if enough people benefit from the trampling. - Utilitarianism has thus been accused of supporting the "tyranny of the majority": if the majority of people would take pleasure in someone's rights being abused, then those rights should be abused, because the pleasure of the majority outweighs the suffering of the one. - Backward-Looking Reasons. Utilitarianism makes the past irrelevant, and so it seems flawed. - The fact that someone committed a crime is a reason to punish him. The fact that someone did you a favor last week is a reason for you to do her a favor next week. The fact that you hurt someone yesterday is a reason to make it up to him today. These are all facts about the past that are relevant to determining our obligations Rule Utilitarianism vs Act Utilitarianism Should We Be Equally Concerned for Everyone? - We must treat each person's happiness as\ equally important. - This has troubling implications.\ One problem is that the requirement of "equal\ concern" places too great a demand on us; - another problem is that it disrupts our personal\ relationships. - When you are impartial, you miss out on\ intimacy, love, affection, and friendship. At\ this point, Utilitarianism seems to have lost all\ touch with reality. The Defense of Utilitarianism - The First Defense: Contesting the Consequences. - The Second Defense: The Principle of Utility Is a Guide for Choosing Rules, Not Acts. - The Third Defense: "Common Sense" Is sometimes wrong. Responses for the third defense - The First Response: All Values Have a Utilitarian Basis. - The Second Response: Our gut reactions can't be trusted when cases are exceptional. - The Third Response: We Should Focus on All the Consequences. Concluding Thoughts - Our "common moral consciousness," many considerations other than utility seem morally important. The Issue involving Harry Truman and Elizabeth Anscombe - Harry S. Truman is known for deciding to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end World War II quickly. He hesitated because the bombs would destroy entire cities, killing soldiers and innocent civilians, including women and children. - Elizabeth Anscombe, a student during the war, argued that killing innocent people is always wrong, no matter the reason. She challenged the idea that saving more lives justifies such actions, asking if it would ever be right to harm one innocent person to prevent a disaster for many. For her, some actions are never acceptable, no matter the outcome. Kant\'s Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant (1724--1804) explained that the word \"ought\" can have different meanings. - Non-moral \"oughts\": These depend on desires. For example: - If you want to play better chess, you ought to study Garry Kasparov's games. - If you want to go to college, you ought to take the SAT. Kant called these "hypothetical imperatives" because they apply only if you have certain goals. - Moral \"oughts\": These don't depend on desires. They are unconditional, meaning, \"You ought to do this, no matter what.\" Kant called these "categorical imperatives." Kant argued that we are bound by moral \"oughts\" because we are rational beings. These rules come from the Categorical Imperative, which says: "Act only according to the principle you would want to become a universal law." In other words, only do something if you believe everyone should act the same way in similar situations. Kant's Arguments on Lying - According to Kant, our actions should follow universal moral rules that apply in all situations, with no exceptions. For example, Kant believed lying is always wrong, no matter the circumstance. - Consider a scenario where lying could save someone's life: - **Anscombe's Maxim:** You might justify lying with the principle, "I will lie to save a life." - **Case of the Inquiring Murderer:** Most people agree it's better to lie and save a life than tell the truth and let someone die. - **Kant's View:** He argued against making exceptions to moral rules like honesty because we can't predict the consequences of our actions with certainty. Lying might have unforeseen, harmful results. - **Criticism of Kant:** This view is seen as overly cautious. In some cases, we can reasonably predict the outcome of our actions---like saving a life by lying---and shouldn't hesitate due to uncertainty. - The dilemma highlights a challenge with absolute rules: Shouldn't they be broken when sticking to them leads to disastrous outcomes? For many, exceptions are necessary in extreme situations. Conflicts between Rules - Moral dilemmas challenge the idea of absolute rules. If it\'s always wrong to do X and also always wrong to do Y, what happens when someone must choose between them? - Example: Hurricane Katrina (2005) - The power was gone, the air was unbearable, and conditions were horrific. - Patients were near death, with no evacuation possible. **Their choice:** 1. Euthanize critical patients to end their suffering. 2. Let them suffer horribly until death. - In this case, at least one absolute rule had to be broken. Over 20 patients were reportedly euthanized, and a doctor was charged with murder but later cleared. Does this disprove absolute rules? - This dilemma shows that two conflicting absolutes can't both hold in all situations. However, it's possible to argue for one single absolute rule, like \"never kill the innocent,\" but not for multiple absolute rules that might conflict. Choices in extreme cases reveal the limits of rigid moral absolutes. Kant's Insight - Kant believed the **Categorical Imperative** binds all rational beings. Rejecting it isn't just immoral; it's irrational. - Moral judgments need valid reasons. If you should or shouldn't do something, there must be a logical basis for it. These reasons must apply universally, as consistency is essential. - Kant acknowledged rational limits on our actions but argued rules aren't always absolute. Violating a rule is acceptable only if the reason is one you\'d accept for anyone in the same situation. **PPT PARTS** **The Categorical Imperative** - Immanuel Kant (1724--1804) - Kant observed that the word "ought" to be often used non morally: - If you want to become a better chess player, you ought to study the games of Garry Kasparov. - If you want to go to college, you ought to take the SAT. - Kant called these "**hypothetical imperatives**" because they tell us what to do provided that we have the relevant desires. - Moral obligations, by contrast, do not depend on having particular desires. The form of a moral obligation is not "If you want so-and-so, then you ought to do such-and-such." - Instead, moral requirements are categorical: They have the form "You ought to do such-and-such, period." - **Kant** - Just as hypothetical "oughts" are possible because we have desires, categorical "oughts" to be possible because we have reason. - Categorical oughts, Kant says, are derived from a\ principle that every rational person must accept:\ the Categorical Imperative. - "Act only according to that maxim by which you\ can at the same time will that it should become a\ universal law." **Applying the Categorical Imperative to specific context** - "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." - Cheating (during exams) - Breaking promises (borrowing money) - Helping those in need - Is it possible to make cheating (during exams) a universal law? - Is it possible to allow people to break their promises (when borrowing money) a universal law? - Is it possible to make it a universal law to help people who are in need? **Kant's Arguments on Lying** - According to Kant, then, our behavior should be guided by universal laws, which are moral rules that hold true in all circumstances. Kant believed in many such exceptionless rules. - Suppose it was necessary to lie to save someone's life. Should you, do it? - Case of the Inquiring Murderer - Under these circumstances, most of us think, you should lie. After all, which is more important: telling the truth or saving someone's life? - Kant's reply - We can never be certain about what the consequences will be---we cannot know that good results will follow. The results of lying might be unexpectedly bad. - Response to Kant - The argument depends on an unreasonably pessimistic view of what we can know. Sometimes we can be quite confident of what the consequences of our actions will be, in which case we need not hesitate because of uncertainty. **Conflicts between Rules** - Suppose it is held to be absolutely wrong to do X in any circumstances and also wrong to do Y in any circumstances. Then what about the case in which a person must choose between doing X and doing Y? This kind of conflict seems to show that moral rules can't be absolute. **Kant's Insight** - Kant viewed the Categorical Imperative as binding on rational agents simply because they are rational; in other words, a person who rejected this principle would be guilty not merely of being immoral but also of being irrational. - Moral judgment must be backed by good reasons---if it is true that you ought (or ought not) to do such hand- such, then there must be a reason why you should (or should not) do it. - Moral reasons are binding on all people at all times. This is a requirement of consistency, and Kant was right to think that no rational person may deny it. - There are rational constraints on what we may do. **Counter Insight** - Rules, even within a Kantian framework, need not be absolute. - All that Kant's basic idea requires is that when we violate a rule, we do so for a reason that we would be willing for anyone to accept. Kant's Core Ideas - **Human Dignity**: Humans hold intrinsic worth or dignity, making them valuable beyond price, unlike animals, which Kant saw as means to human ends. - **Irreplaceability**: Human beings, as ends, are unique and cannot be substituted. - **Two Reasons for Human Dignity:** 1. Humans have desires, and things that fulfill these desires have value to them. 2. Humans are rational agents---free to make decisions, set goals, and act guided by reason. - **Moral Goodness**: Exists only when rational beings act from goodwill, understanding their duty and acting upon it. - **Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative**: \"Act so that you treat humanity, in yourself or others, always as an end and never as a means only.\" - This means treating people well and valuing them inherently, not merely for their utility Retribution and Utility in the Theory of Punishment The main ideas for this topic are: 1. Jeremy Bentham (1748--1832) said that "all punishment is mischief: all punishment in itself is evil." Bentham had a point. Punishment, by its nature, always involves inflicting some harm on the person punished. 2. Retributivism - is idea that punishment is justified as a way of "paying back" the offender for his wicked deed. Those who have committed a crime deserve to be treated badly. It is a matter of justice: If you harm other people, justice requires that you be harmed, too. 3. Retributivism was, on Bentham's view, a wholly unsatisfactory idea, because it advocates the infliction of suffering without any compensating gain in happiness. If someone breaks the law, then punishing that person can have several benefits. - First, punishment provides comfort and gratification to victims and their families. - Second, by locking up criminals, or by executing them, we take them off the street. - Third, punishment reduces crime by deterring would-be criminals. - Fourth, a well-designed system of punishment might help to rehabilitate wrongdoers. Kant's Retributivism Kant's Principles of Punishment: 1. Punishment for the Crime: People should be punished solely because they committed a crime, not for other purposes. 2. Proportionality: Punishment must match the seriousness of the crime. Treating People as Ends: - This means recognizing individuals as rational beings responsible for their actions. - Rational beings act freely based on their own reasoning, making them accountable for their choices. Punishment as Responsibility: Punishing someone acknowledges their accountability and responds to their deliberate wrongdoing. The Debate: - Utilitarian View: Criminals may be seen as victims of circumstances beyond their control, favoring prevention and rehabilitation. - Kantian View: Criminals are rational agents who freely choose harm, justifying retributive punishment. The core question: Do humans have free will, or are their actions shaped by external forces? This determines which model of punishment is more convincing. Review of the Previous Lesson - Immanuel Kant -- Categorical Imperative - Moral rules should be expressed categorically. - "You ought to do such-and-such, period." - Moral rules should NOT be expressed hypothetically. - "If you want so-and-so, then you ought to do such-and-such." - The Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation) - "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." - Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation) - "Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only." - To treat people "as an end" means, on the most superficial level, treating them well. Kant's Core Ideas - Human beings have "an intrinsic worth" or "dignity" that makes them valuable "above all price." - To say that human beings have "an intrinsic worth" or "dignity" means that. - Two facts about people that support Kant's ideas. - First, because people have desires, things that satisfy those desires can have value for people. - Second, People have "an intrinsic worth, i.e., dignity" because they are rational agents, that is, free agents capable of making their own decisions, setting their own goals, and guiding their conduct by reason. Retributivism and Utility in the Theory of Punishment - Utilitarian Theory of Punishment. Jeremy Bentham (1748--1832) said that "all punishment in itself is evil." Punishment, by its nature, always involves inflicting some harm on the person punished. - Retributivism. Those who have committed a crime deserve to be treated badly. It is a matter of justice: If you harm other people, justice requires that you be harmed, too. Utility in the Theory of Punishment - Retributivism was, on Bentham's view, is a bad idea, because it advocates the infliction of suffering without any compensating gain in happiness. - If someone breaks the law, then punishing that person can have several benefits. - First, punishment provides comfort and gratification to victims and their families. - Second, by locking up criminals, we take them off the street. - Third, punishment reduces crime by deterring would-be criminals. - Fourth, a well-designed system of punishment might help to rehabilitate wrongdoers. Kant's Retributivism - Kant, he argues that punishment should be governed by two principles. - First, people should be punished simply because they have committed crimes, and for no other reason. - Second, punishment should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. - For Kant, to punish people when they break the moral law is to treat them with respect, it is a sign of respect. - Treating someone "as an end" means treating him as a rational being, who is responsible for his behavior. - A rational being can freely decide what to do, based on his own conception of what is best. Rational beings are responsible for their behavior, and so they are accountable for what they do. - In punishing people, we are holding them accountable for their actions. We are responding to them as people who have freely chosen their evil deeds. Conclusion - At the end of the day, what we think of Kant's theory may depend on our view of criminal behavior. - If we see criminals as victims of circumstance, who do not ultimately control their own actions, then the utilitarian model will appeal to us. - On the other hand, if we see criminals as rational agents who freely choose to do harm, then Kantian Retributivism will have great appeal for us. Social Contract Theory Hobbes's Argument - Morality should be understood as the solution to a practical problem that arises for self-interested human beings. - We all want to live as well as possible; but in order to flourish, we need a peaceful, cooperative social order. And we cannot have one without rules. - Those rules are the moral rules; morality consists of the precepts we need to follow in order to get the benefits of social living. "The state of nature." - Hobbes begins by asking what it would be like if there were no way to enforce social rules. Suppose there were no government institutions---no laws, no police, and no courts. In this situation, each of us would be free to do as we pleased. - The state of nature would be awful, Hobbes thought, due to four basic facts about human life: 1. There is equality of need. 2. There is scarcity. 3. There is the essential equality of human power. 4. Finally, there is limited altruism. - Hobbes puts it, is a "constant state of war, of one with all." And it is a war no one can win. Life in the state of nature would be intolerable. - To escape the state of nature, we must find a way to work together. In a stable and cooperative society, we can produce more essential goods and distribute them in a rational way. But establishing such a society is not easy. People must agree on rules to govern their interactions. - Hobbes calls such an agreement "the social contract." "The Social Contract." - It is only within the context of the social contract that we can become beneficent beings, because the contract creates the conditions under which we can afford to care about others. - Morality consists in the set of rules, governing behavior, that rational people will accept, on the condition that others accept them as well. - The Social Contract Theory explains the purpose of both morality and government. The purpose of morality is to make social living possible; the purpose of government is to enforce vital moral rules. The Prisoner's Dilemma - The Prisoner's Dilemma was invented by Merrill M. Flood and Melvin Dresher around 1950. - Suppose you live in a totalitarian society, and one day, to your astonishment, you are arrested and charged with treason. The police say that you have been plotting against the government with a man named Smith, who has also been arrested and is being held in a separate cell. The interrogator demands that you confess. You protest your innocence; you don't even know Smith. But this does you no good. It soon becomes clear that your captors are not interested in the truth; they merely want to convict someone. - They offer you the following deal: - If Smith does not confess, but you confess and testify against him, then they will release you. You will go free, while Smith will be put away for 10 years. - If Smith confesses and you do not, the situation will be reversed---he will go free while you get 10 years. - If you both confess, you will each be sentenced to 5 years. - If neither of you confesses, then there won't be enough evidence to convict either of you. They can hold you for a year, but then they will have to let both of you go. - Finally, you are told that Smith is being offered the same deal; but you cannot communicate with him, and you have no way of knowing what he will do. - Morality as the Solution to Prisoner's- Dilemma-Type Problems. - There are four possibilities: 1. You could be selfish while other people are benevolent; 2. others could be selfish while you are benevolent; 3. everyone could be selfish; and 4. everyone could be benevolent. - How would you fare in each of these situations? - You would be best off if you were selfish while other people were benevolent. You would get the benefit of their generosity without having to return the favor. (In this situation, you would be a "free rider.") - Second-best would be if everyone were benevolent. You would no longer have the advantages that come from ignoring other people's interests, but you would be treated well by others. (This is the situation of "ordinary morality.") - A bad situation, but not the worst, would be one in which everyone was selfish. You would try to protect your own interests, but you would get little help from others. (This is Hobbes's "state of nature.") - You would be worst off if you were benevolent while others were selfish. Other people could stab you in the back whenever they saw fit, but you would never do the same. You would come out on the short end every time. (This is the "sucker's payoff.") - To escape the dilemma, we need another enforceable agreement, this time to obey the rules of mutually respectful social living. - As before, cooperation will not yield the optimum outcome for each individual, but it will lead to a better result than noncooperation. - We need, in David Gauthier's words, to "bargain our way into morality." We can do that by establishing laws and social customs that protect the interests of everyone involved. Some Advantages of the Social Contract Theory - The strength of this theory is due, in large part, to the fact that it provides plausible answers to some difficult questions. 1. What moral rules are we bound to follow, and how are those rules justified? 2. Why is it rational for us to follow the moral rules? 3. Under what circumstances is it rational to break the rules? 4. How much can morality demand of us? Are you morally bound to sacrifice yourself The Problem of Civil Disobedience - Are we ever justified in breaking the law? If so, when? Difficulties for the Theory - First, it is said that the Social Contract Theory is based on a historical fiction. - The second objection is more troubling. The Social Contract Theory is grounded in self- interest and reciprocity; thus, it seems unable to recognize the moral duties we have to individuals who cannot benefit us. - Some individuals cannot benefit us. Thus, according to the Social Contract Theory, these individuals have no claim on us, and we may ignore their interests when we're writing up the rules of society. - There would be at least four vulnerable groups: - Human infants - Nonhuman animals - Future generations - Oppressed populations Natural Law Theory: JUDE'S NOTES Natural Law Theory - Key concept is \"Human Nature\" Advantages: 1. Explains how mortality can be objective 2. Explains why morality is best suited for human being 3. Accounts for the origin of morality 4. Explains how we gain moral knowledge Disadvantages: 1. If human nature is the source of the advantages then it is also the start of Disadvantages Human Nature - What is Human nature? (innate traits, behaviors, and ways of thinking that are generally shared by all humans, influenced by biological instincts and social experiences.) - What makes us human? (Essential features of being human, if we lose this feature, we lose humanity) Natural Purpose - 2 ways to determine Human Purpose: Efficiency Model and Fitness Model 1. Efficiency Model - if you\'re good at something then maybe it is your purpose (If say you\'re good at killing then will that be your purpose?) 2. Fitness Model - To survive and reproduce ( if you cannot reproduce then what is your purpose?) NOTES - Morality (Right/wrong) is determined by Human Nature - Only humans have morality because we have \"Human Nature\", Praising and Blaming can only be done by humans - Morality is best suited for human beings because the only one you can blame is humans - Origin of Morality is Man - Moral knowledge - Understanding of what is right and what is wrong - Any right done by Human Nature is right and if it is not done by Human Nature then it is wrong - What makes us human?? (It has to be specific only to humans and is present in all humans regardless of age or physical/mental capacity) Ethics of Right Action---Virtue Ethics - Natural Law Theory - Social Contract - Utilitarianism - Katian Ethics - Egoism All of these theories ask 1 question \"What should we do to do the right action?\" - Virtue Ethics does not only ask this question - Virtue Ethics Asks - \"What kind of person should we/I become?\" - A Virtuous Person - \"What kind of person does the right thing?\" - The focus is not on the action but on the person who does the action Virtue Ethics 1. What is a virtue? Trait/Character, Positive/Commendable, Admirable/Desirable 2. What are the virtues? 3. What do these virtues consist in? We want to define each virtue, to have a general definition 4. Why are they important? Can also be answered by question number 1 Advantages: Considers the motivation Disadvantages: - Considered to be incomplete (It cannot explain some things especially when virtues are in conflict) - Examples of Virtues: Generostity, Courage, Moderation, Honesty, Perseverance, and Temperance Notes: - Vice - Opposite of Virtue - Both vice and virtues are HABITS - Habits are important to virtues because they make virtues a habit - Virtue Ethics considers the motivation/intention but in Kantian Ethics, it doesn\'t really matter Virtue Ethics---Ethics of Care---Carol Gilligan Ethics of Right Action Responsibility/Obligation; Masculine Ethics - Natural Law - Social Contract - Kantian Ethics - Utilitarianism Lawrence Kohlberg\'s stages of moral development Self 1. Avoiding Punishment 2. Satisfying one\'s desires Thinking about other people 3. Cultivating Relationship 4. Maintaining the welfare of the community 5. Recognizing basic right 6. Abiding by universal moral principles