PSYCH 225 - Experimental Psychology Review PDF

PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Scientific Methodology LESSON 1: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Science – comes fro...

PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Scientific Methodology LESSON 1: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Science – comes from the Latin word “Scientia”- AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD knowledge - It also meant content and process Scientific Methodology Psychology is the science of behavior Content – the facts we learn in our psychology or ◈ We rely on scientific methods when we conduct chemistry courses psychological research Process – the systematic ways in which we go about ⬥ Conditions where we make our observations gathering data, noting relationship, and offering ⬥ Observing in a systematic way explanations ⬥ Accepting or rejecting alternative explanations of behaviors on the basis of what we have observed *All areas of Psychology relies on Scientific research methods Why is there a need for Scientific Methodology? (7) Characteristics of Commonsense Psychology – the everyday, non-scientific Scientific Methods data gathering that shapes our beliefs and directs our behavior towards others 1. Scientific Mentality Behavior must follow a natural order; therefore, it can be (2)Limitations of predicted Commonsense Psychology: Determinism - there are specifiable (although not ⬥ ¹Source of psychological information necessarily simple or obvious) causes for the way people ⬥ ²Inferential strategies behave and that these causes can be discovered through research (3)Non-Scientific Sources of 2. Gathering Empirical Data Data and Inference: Aristotle - advocated systematic observations and careful classification of naturally occurring events ¹Confirmation Bias – the tendency to overlook instances Empirical Data that might disconfirm our beliefs and only seek Observable and experienced data confirmatory instances of that behavior Can be verified or disproved by investigation ²Non-Scientific Inference 3. Seeking General Principles When we understand other people’s behavior, there is a Laws - Principles that have the generality to apply all strong bias to overlook situational data in favor of data that situations substantiate trait explanations (Gilbert, 1995; Ross & Theory – A set of general principles that attempts to Nisbett, 1991) explain and predict behavior or phenomena ³Overconfidence Bias - Our predictions, guesses, and 4. Good Thinking explanations tend to feel much more correct than they Our approach to the collection and interpretation of data actually are, and the more data we have available should be systematic, objective, and rational (accurate or not), the more confidence we have in our Principle of Parsimony (Simplicity) – it is the judgments about behavior (Dunning, Griffin, Milojkovic, & simplicity and clarity of thoughts Ross, 1990). BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY the simplest explanation of an event or observation is the Tools of Psychological Science preferred explanation 5. Self-Correction Observation - the systematic noting and recording of We should accept the uncertainty of our own conclusion events 6. Publicizing Results The key to studying internal processes is defining them as continuous exchange of information is vital to the events that can be observed scientific process 7. Replication Measurement - the assignment of numerical values to We should be able to repeat our procedures and get the objects or events or their characteristics according to same results again if we have gathered data objectively and conventional rules if we have followed good thinking The same unit of measurement needs to be used each time we measure our observations The Objectives of Psychological Science Experimentation The same unit of measurement needs to be used each (4)Four major objectives of research: time we measure our observations Description To do an experiment, our predictions must be testable: Prediction ​ we must have procedures for manipulating the Explanation setting Control ​ the predicted outcome must be observable ​ we must be able to measure the outcome Description Experimentation must also be objective - refers to a systematic and unbiased account of the observed characteristics of behaviors Scientific Explanation Prediction in Psychological Science - the capacity for knowing in advance when certain behaviors would be expected to occur because we have Identifying antecedent conditions identified other conditions with which the behaviors are Antecedent Conditions - are the circumstances that come linked or associated before the event or behavior that we want to explain Explanation - includes knowledge of the conditions that reliably Comparing Treatment Conditions reproduce the occurrence of a behavior Treatments - specific sets of antecedent conditions Control - refers to the application of what has been learned about The Psychology Experiment behavior A controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are applied to subjects. procedures in the psychology experiment are carefully Applied Research - designed to solve real-world controlled so that we can be sure we are measuring what problems we intend to measure Successful experimentation relies heavily on the principle Basic Research - designed to test theories or to of control explain psychological phenomena in humans and animals Control is most often achieved by: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY random assignment of subjects to different treatment physical and mental illness could be cured by realigning conditions these fluids using magnets, electrodes, or his hands passed presenting a treatment condition in an identical manner across the patient’s body to all subjects 4. Spiritualism - involved purported contact with ghosts and spirits of the dead Establishing Cause and Effect We can infer a cause and effect in an experiment Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1926) Temporal Relationship – A chain of events where event A first experimental psychologist is followed by event B birth of psychological science is usually dated from the Necessary vs Sufficient conditions opening of his laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 ​ Necessary Conditions – it must be present but it Granville Stanley Hall does not guarantee that the event will happen One of Wundt’s first laboratory students ​ Sufficient Conditions – It guarantees that the first psychology laboratory in the United States (1883) at event will occur, but it's not the only way for the Johns Hopkins University. event to occur ENUMERATION: LESSON 1 From Psuedo-science to Psychological Science (2) Limitations of Commonsense Psychology Pseudoscience ⬥ Source of psychological information From the Greek word “Pseudo”-False ⬥ Inferential strategies characterizes any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific but has no true scientific basis and has (3) Non-Scientific Sources of not been confirmed using the scientific method. Data and Inference *Psychology before doesn’t use any scientific method ⬥ Confirmation Bias ⬥ Non-scientific Inference Psuedoscientific practices: ⬥ Overconfidence Bias 1. Phrenology - assessing traits and dispositions by measuring the size and location of bumps on the skull of a (7) Characteristics of person Scientific Methods ⬥ Scientific Mentality ⬥ Gathering Empirical Data ⬥ Seeking General Principles 2. Physiognomy - involved using facial features, ⬥ Good Thinking particularly the appearance of the eyes, nose, chin, and ⬥ Self-Correction forehead, to evaluate traits, mental capacity, and skills ⬥ Publicizing Results ⬥ Replication (4) Four major objectives of research ⬥ Description ⬥ Prediction ⬥ Explanation 3. Mesmerism - Mesmer believed that fluids in the body ⬥ Control ebbed and flowed by magnetic principles and that both BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (3) Tools of Psychological Science ⬥ Observation ⬥ Measurement ⬥ Experimentation (4) Pseudoscientific practices ⬥ Phrenology ⬥ Physiognomy ⬥ Mesmerism ⬥ Spiritualism BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY -​ hindi pwedeng Isang expert lang, in collaboration LESSON 2: dapat sya with teachers, instructor, or RESEARCH ETHICS institutions. di pwedeng Ikaw lang, kailangan may Science is considered amoral mga experts sa field -kaya may mga mad scientist Note: hindi lang trip natin ang research, dapat may significance n dapat relevant sya. kase parang nagsasayang "Do we have the right to perform any experiment ka lang ng pagod, pati mga participants mo. imaginable just for the sake of new knowledge?” High ethical standards in mental health research shall be promoted to ensure that: Research Ethics ◎ ¹research is conducted only with the free and informed -​ no matter kung what species pa, unang una cino consent of the persons involved: consider ang safety ng participants -​ kailangan laging may informed consent, minsan -​ no.1 na iniisip ang mga participants kase may deception sa research, dine deceive nila ◎ The researcher’s foremost concern in recruiting and ang mga participants. kung walang informed using subjects is treating them ethically and responsibly. consent dapat may debriefing, kailangan inform -​ responsible ka for your subjects, kung ano man sila. dapat freely sila okay ang mangyari during the time na na c-conduct ◎ ²researchers do not receive any privileges, ang research compensation or remuneration in exchange for encouraging ◎ Responsible research is aimed at advancing our or recruiting participants; understanding of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors in ways -​ walang commission sa research. bawal yon kase that will ultimately benefit humanity. motivation nila is yung money, kaya namimilit sila -​ dapat na c-consider yung well-being ng for money. pwede magbigay pero di ganon kataas participants, mas important ang participants kesa ang value gaya ng ballpen sa study. kung nag withdraw sila titigil ang ◎ ³potentially harmful or dangerous research is not research, icheck kung napapano sila undertaken all research is approved by an independent ◎ A researcher is legally responsible for what happens to ethics committee, in accordance with applicable law. research participants -​ kapag sa postgrad, bago makapag data gathering -​ dapat may consent, may copy ka n may copy sila dadaan muna sa ethics committee, hihintay mo para legal sya. para mapakita na pumayag sila ang feedback dun ka palang makakapag proceed ◎ To protect the subjects of psychological research, the sa data gathering. c-check muna nila kung ethical government has formulated legal and ethical guidelines ba yung research. dapat ethical enough bago mag -​ heto yung nasa baba 👇 push through *Research and development shall also be undertaken RA 11036 Chapter VI Article 28 vis-à-vis non-medical, traditional or alternative practices. Research and Development - Research and development shall be undertaken, in collaboration with academic -​ hindi pwedeng i maltrato ang mga participants, institutions, psychiatric, neurologic, and related unless kasama sa activity ng research. associations, and nongovernment organizations, to produce -​ kapag may nagsumbong na participants, the information, data, and evidence necessary to formulate makukulong ang researcher. and develop a culturally relevant national mental health Review Board program incorporating indigenous concepts and practices Review board - people who evaluate proposed studies related to metal health. before they are conducted -​ bago mag proceed sa study, dito muna dadaan BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ◎ The primary duty of a review board is to ensure that the or injury, researchers must explain this in advance so that safety of research participants is adequately protected subjects know what they are getting into before they agree -​ dapat hindi nasa isang disadvantage yung to participate. ◎ Risk/benefit analysis – used to determine whether -​ dapat nakalagay kung ano pwede ma triggersa any risks to the individual are outweighed by potential gagawin benefits or the importance of the knowledge to be gained 5. Researchers must provide assurances that all data will remain private and confidential. Reasons why poorly designed research can be -​ dapat secure, at i assure na confidential lang unethical (Robert Rosenthal, 1994) yung gagawin ◎ Students’, teachers’, and administrators’s time will be 6. subjects may not be asked to release the researchers (or taken from potentially more beneficial educational study sponsors, institutions, or other agents) from liability experiences. or to waive their legal rights in the case of injury ◎ Poorly designed research can lead to unwarranted and -​ hindi pwedeng waiver inaccurate conclusions that may be damaging to the society ◎ Consent should be obtained in writing, and subjects that directly or indirectly pays for the research. should receive a copy to keep. ◎ Allocating time and money to poor-quality science will ◎ Whenever the subject is a minor or is cognitively keep those finite resources from better-quality impaired, researchers need to obtain consent from a parent science. or legal guardian. -​ hindi pwede sila magpirma ng consent, yung mga Review Board minor ◎ Another task is to safeguard the rights of individuals by -​ hingin parin dapat yung opinion nila kahit bata making certain that each subject at risk gives informed plang consent to participate -​ dapat may consent ng bata n also their parent ◎ Informed consent means that the subject agrees to The consent form provides subjects with information participate after having been fully informed about the relevant to their participation in the experiment: nature of the study. ◎ the nature of the experiment, -​ proof na si participant is nag agree sya, kung ano ◎ an overview of the procedures that will occur, man ang nilagay don ◎ how long it will take, Informed Consent ◎ the potential risks and benefits, 1. Individuals must give their consent freely, without the ◎ what they will be required to do. use of force, duress, or coercion. -​ hindi namimilit dapat The specific hypothesis of the experiment, however, is 2. They must be free to drop out of the experiment at any typically not disclosed on the form -​ minsan kailangan ng deception sa informed time. consent kase pag sinabi ang hypothesis, pwede -​ they are allowed to withdraw nila ma manipulate ang result pr outcome ng 3. Researchers must give subjects a full explanation of the study, kaya mag debrief nalang non at sabihin na procedures to be followed and offer to answer any may nangyaring deception sa informed consent questions about them. -​ dapat allowed sila magtanong, pero dat galingan nalang sa pagsagot or ayusin para di masira ang “The purpose of informed consent is to give subjects deception enough information about the experiment so that they can 4. Researchers must make clear the potential risks and make an informed decision about whether or not they want benefits of the experiment. If there is any possibility of pain BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY to participate.” -​ dapat we still make sure yung well-being nila kahit na parang minimal risk lang sya, dpat nandon lahat sa informed consent para aware ang 1 EVOLUTION OF participant, para walang discomfort sakanya ETHICS IN RESEARCH ◎ After the World War II ◎ Observations of public behavior, anonymous -​ Nazi doctors nag conduct ng brutal experiments questionnaires, and certain kinds of archival research fall sa mga prisoners, they broke all the norms or into the minimal risk category moral chuchu. somehow necessary sya, kase kung -​ necessary ang informed consent pero di sya hindi dahil don di magkakaron ng ethical code mandatory, pagtapos nalang ng study sabihin if ◎ the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials yung study is di sya kinakailangan ng informed -​ dito na na create yung mga ethical codes, sila consent sa una yung pinaka basis talaga ng mga ethics natin ngayon Deception and Full Disclosure ◎ The relationship between researcher and participants ◎ The Belmont Report - consists of three ethical should be as open and honest as possible principles -​ kailangan maging honest tayo sa mga The Three Ethical Principles participants para ganon din sila sa mga ◎ respect for persons, (we respect vulnerable people, we acknowledge that everyone is autonomous person, respect researcher, pero minsan nga kinakailangan ng their decisions) deception ◎ beneficence (obligation to minimize the risk and ◎ How do research subjects feel about being deceived? maximize the benefit) ◎ Research participants do not perceive that they are ◎ justice (dapat if we are respecting the subject, they harmed and do not seem to mind being misled. should also respect us) -​ Mas nag w-worry ang mga researcher sa deception kesa sa subjects nila, kase baka may 2 APA (American Psychological Association) magalit GUIDELINES ◎ The consensus among researchers seems to be that the -​ naka base pa rin dito yung mga sinusundan natin use of deception is most often justified by the knowledge APA Guidelines that is gained ◎ The code applies to psychologists and students who ◎ Sometimes a small omission, or outright deception, is assume the role of psychologists by engaging in research or necessary to make an appropriate test of the experimental practice. hypothesis -​ as long as u are psychology major, responsibility ◎ Furthermore, the researchers adhered to the principle of nyo na sundan yung guidelines na to full disclosure by completely debriefing subjects at the end ◎ Whenever a question arises about the ethics of an of the experiment—that is, explaining the true nature and experiment or procedure, the researcher should seek advice purpose of the study. from a Review Board/Ethics committee -​ kapag may questions ka na di ka sure about -​ kapag may deception na ginawa, dapat may ethics, u should ask the review board or ethics debriefing n maging honest na sa mga subjects committee and magbibigay na sila ng suggestions non Anonymity and Confidentiality ◎ Fully informed consent is required from all participants ◎ Maintaining anonymity and confidentiality is another who are at risk because of the nature of the research important consideration for researchers. -​ BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ◎ Whenever possible, data should be collected ◎ the purpose of research, expected duration, and anonymously and identified by code numbers or fictitious procedures; names ◎ mutual responsibilities; ◎ Achieving the goals of anonymity and confidentiality are ◎ their right to decline to participate and to withdraw a serious challenge for researchers using the Internet to from the research once participation has begun; conduct research online ◎ the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; -​ tinatago dapat okaya s-shred para mapanatili ◎ reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to yung confidentiality influence their willingness to participate such as potential -​ issue about dito is yung sa online kase di sure risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; kung safe ba, or walang makakakita ◎ how to rescind consent if desired; ◎ any prospective research benefits; 3 PAP (Psychological Association of the Philippines) GUIDELINES When conducting intervention research using experimental Rights and Dignity of Participants (respect for person) treatments, it is our duty to clarify to participants at the beginning of research the following: ◎ In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the ◎ experimental nature of the treatment dignity, and protect and promote the welfare of research ◎ services that will or will not be available to the control participants. group(s) if appropriate; ◎ We respect their culture, social structure and tradition ◎ means by which assignment to treatment and control as well as their cultural expectations groups will be made; ◎ The participants have the right to withdraw their ◎ available treatment alternatives if an individual does not participation at any time wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw ◎ We don’t engage with in researches that are against any once a study has begun; law ◎ compensation for or monetary costs of participating, ◎ It is our duty to inquire from our participants about any and if appropriate, including whether reimbursement from factors that would bring potential harm as well as to ensure the participant or a third-party payor will be sought. that their rights are protected by seeking ethical reviews of the possible risks that our research may pose to them In longitudinal research, we may need to obtain informed consent on more than one occasion. Informed Consent to Research ◎ We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research form; we recognize that informed consent happens due to participants before recording their voices or images for the willingness of the participants to work collaboratively data collection, except when: with us ◎ the research consists only of naturalistic observations in ◎ We make sure that the consent form is translated in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording language or dialect that the participants understand. will be used in a manner that could cause personal ◎ When we conduct research for people who are still in identification or harm; and, need of guidance and are not allowed to make decisions on ◎ the research design includes deception, and consent for their own, we obtain approval from guardian or independent the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing. advisors Research Participation of Client, Students and When obtaining informed consent, it is our duty to inform Subordinates research participants about: ◎ We inform them of their right to not participate BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ◎ When research participation is a course requirement or ◎ We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, an opportunity for extra credit, we inform our clients, excessive or, inappropriate reward, financial or other students or subordinates about equitable alternative inducements for research participation, which could likely activities that could fulfill their educational or employment pressure or coerce participation. goals -​ dapat tama lang yung reward nila sa ginawa nila, di pwedeng sumosobra or makakapag Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research pressure/force skanila para mag participate We may dispense informed consent only on the following ◎ When we offer psychological and professional services conditions: as an incentive for research participation, it is our duty to clarify the nature of the services, including the risks, 1. when we believe that the research would not distress or obligations and limitations create harm to participants or general welfare or when our -​ sinasabi dapat ang mga risks, i make sure lagi study involves: ang mga participants ◎ the study or normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational Deception in Research settings; We refrain from conducting research involving deception, -​ pag sa assessments, quiz lang di na kelangan ng except: ◎ when we have determined that the use of deceptive informed consent techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective ◎ only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic scientific, educational, medical, or applied value; observations, or archival research for which disclosure of ◎ when effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are responses would not place participants at risk of criminal not possible. or civil liability or damage their financial standing, ◎ We do not deceive prospective research participants employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is about our study that is reasonably expected to interfere protected; their decision to give informed consent. We ensure that -​ yung mga di naman nanghihingi ng pedonal level of risk, discomfort, or inconvenience that could cause informations physical pain or severe emotional I'll Distress is not -​ n sa mga archival data namn, basta hindi ma withheld from the participants reveal yung individual personal data ◎ It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral ◎ the study of factors related to job or organization feature of design and conduct of an experiment to those effectiveness conducted in organizational settings which who participated in research as soon as possible, preferably would not affect the participants' employability, and at the end of their participation but not later than the end confidentiality is protected; or, of data gathering -​ kung di mo hihingin yung personal data ng isang participant Debriefing ◎ We debrief by informing the participants that they have 2. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional contributed to the body of knowledge and we make sure regulation that they have also learned from their participation. ◎ We give participants an opportunity to obtain the Offering Inducements for Research Participation nature, results, and conclusions of the research. ◎ We may fairly compensate participants for the use of ◎ We also take reasonable steps to correct any their time, energy, and knowledge, unless such misconceptions participants have about our research, compensation is refused in advance. especially when the participants were led to believe that -​ pwede i reward sila dahil sa time n effort na the research has a different purpose. binigay pero pag nag refuse wag na pilitin BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ◎ When participants' trust may have been lost due to ◎ We make sure that all individuals under our supervision incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading participants have received clear instructions and guidelines in research to believe that the research had a different purpose, we methods and in care, maintenance, and handling of animals seek to reestablish trust and assure them that the research or specific species being used, to the extent that is procedures were carefully structured and necessary for appropriate to their role. scientifically valid findings. ◎ If scientific or humane values justify delaying or We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and privation to withholding this information, we take reasonable measures animals only when: ◎ an alternative procedure is unavailable; to reduce the risk of harm. -​ for example: kailangan mo silang saktan para sa ◎ When we become aware that our research procedures research, kapag ka walang alternatives pwede sya have harmed a participant, we act to correct and minimize i conduct the harm. ◎ the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, ◎ If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw educational, or applied value; their data, we shall respect and grant their request. The -​ yung goal mo dapat is valuable sya participants have the right to appeal that their own data, ◎ we make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, including recordings, be destroyed. infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. Observational Research -​ bibigyan ng anesthesia para di gaanong masakit ◎ We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of para sakanila persons studied based on observational research. ◎ We perform surgical procedures with appropriate ◎ This method is acceptable only when those being anesthesia and we follow techniques to avoid infection and observed would expect to be observed by strangers. minimize the pain during and after surgery. ◎ Only when it is appropriate that an animal's life be Humane Care and the use of animals in research terminated, then we proceed rapidly, with an effort to ◎ We do not use animals in research, except when there is minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. a sufficient reason to say that it is the only way to: -​ kapag mamamatay namn yung animal, terminate ◎ further increase understanding of the structures and na agad para di na matagal ang suffering processes underlying human or animal behavior; -​ hindi pwede na gumamit ka ng animals unless Reporting Research Results animal research ang gagawin mo ◎ Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with ◎ increase understanding of the specific specie used in groups, organizations, or communities being studied the the study; findings of our research so as to increase the accuracy of ◎ eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare of interpretation and to minimize the risk of humans or other animals. misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse. -​ kapag makakapag benefit sya sa mga humans and ◎ We are cautious when reporting results of our research ibang animals okay lang na gumamit ng animals regarding vulnerable groups or communities and we ensure ◎ We comply with current laws, regulations and that the results will not be misinterpreted or misused in professional standards when we acquire, care for, use, and the development of social policy, attitude, and practices. dispose animals used in research. ◎ In research involving children, we are cautious when ◎ We take reasonable steps to ensure that animals used in discussing the results with parents, legal guardians, or research are treated humanely and are not exposed to teachers and we make sure that there is no unnecessary ·discomfort, pain, or disruption. misinterpretation or misunderstanding. -​ kapag iniingatan sila as ur subjects, treat them -​ maging careful dapat sa pag e-explain ng properly kahit sa pagkamatay nila condition ng isang bata sa mga parents nila BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ◎ We do not fabricate data. It is our duty to share and not to withhold our data to other -​ wag dapat mag dagdag ng mga sagot or magpalit competent professionals, who seek to verify and reanalyze oki the research results and substantive claims of our ◎ If we discover significant errors in our published data, publication, provided that: we act quickly to correct such errors in a correction, ◎ the latter obtain prior written agreement for the use of retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means. data; ◎ the latter intend to use the data solely for the purpose declared; Plagiarism ◎ the latter will hold responsibility for costs associated ◎ We do not present any portions of other's work or data with the release of data; and as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally ◎ confidentiality of participants can be protected. Publication Credit Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude ◎ We take responsibility and credit only for work we have such release, then the latter should seek permission from actually done and credit others (including students and the concerned institution, organization or agency. research assistants) for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed. Reviewers -​ kapag may ginawa or inambag lang dun i t-take When we review material submitted for presentation, into credit publication, grant, or research proposal review, we respect ◎ We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship the confidentiality and the proprietary rights of those who accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional submitted it. contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their -​ kapag nag r-review we respect confidentiality relative status. -​ hindi yung kapag maganda, hindi ipapasa -​ kung sino ang pinaka nag effort sa study yun ang lalagay talaga na mas kita, Limitations of the Study ◎ We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication ◎ We acknowledge the limitations of our knowledge, that is substantially based on our student's thesis or methods, findings, interventions, interpretations, and dissertation if we do not have substantial contributions to conclusions. the research beyond our regular duties as ◎ In cases wherein our research touches on social policies thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor. and structures of communities which we ◎ In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or do not belong, we thoroughly discuss the limits of our data substantially based on the student's thesis or dissertation, with respect to their social policy. we shall give appropriate publication credit to the student ◎ We do not conceal disconfirming evidence about our based on the student's contribution relative to the other findings and views and we acknowledge alternative authors. hypotheses and explanations Duplicate publication of data 4 PROTECTING THE WELFARE ◎ We do not publish data that have been previously OF ANIMAL SUBJECTS published and claim them as original data. Animal Welfare However, this does not prohibit republishing of data as long ◎ Animal Welfare Act of 1998 (RA 10631) as proper acknowledgement is clearly stated. ◎ It includes, but not limited to, the avoidance of abuse, maltreatment, cruelty and exploitation of animals by Sharing Research Data for Verification humans by maintaining appropriate standards of accommodation, feeding and general care, the prevention BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY and treatment of disease and the assurance of freedom ◎ Therefore, in subsequent work Brady explored the effect from fear, distress, harassment, and unnecessary discomfort of the conditioning procedures. He trained two monkeys, and pain, and allowing animals to express normal behavior. designating one an executive and one a control. Both -​ nag start sa US 1966, nagbibigay sila ng general monkeys were given brief shocks on the feet. However, the standards kung pano ba ina alagaan ang mga executive monkey could prevent shock by pressing a lever. animals Unless the executive acted appropriately, it (and its partner, ◎ Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee the control monkey) would be shocked on the feet once -​ sila yung mga review board, committee ng mga every 20 seconds nonhumans, bago mag conduct ng animal ◎ The monkeys were exposed to alternating 6-hour research periods of shock avoidance and rest (no shock). This ◎ Department of Agriculture Administrative Circular No procedure continued for 23 days, after which the executive 40 Series of 1999 monkey collapsed and was sacrificed. Subsequent IACUC should consist: experiments were conducted with different pairs of ◎ a licensed veterinarian; monkeys and with different time intervals. ◎ someone experienced in scientific processes involving animals; Ethical Objections ◎ and a public member not affiliated with the institution ◎ The use of the restraining chairs alone is probably and preferably with concern for animal welfare extremely distressing to the animals ◎ The use of electric shock concerns many critics of Organizations related animal research with Animal Welfare ◎ Ethical objections also can be raised because the study ◎ The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science was poorly designed (AALAS) ◎ The American Association for Accreditation of Animal Rights Movement Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) ◎ The basic premise of the APA guidelines for animal ◎ AAALAC uses the National Academy of Science’s (1996) research is that animal research is acceptable to further Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals as its the understanding of behavioral principles and to promote principal set of guidelines. the welfare of humans ◎ APA’s Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) ◎ Some of the most vocal critics of animal research have ◎ Philippine Association of Laboratory Animal Science been advocates of the concept of animal rights—the idea (PALAS) that all sensate species, particularly those that feel pain, are of equal value and have equal rights. The Case of Joseph Brady ◎ The study is about the emotional behavior of rhesus monkeys Do humans have the right to take the life of another animal ◎ The experimental set up seemed to be highly stressful to prolong the life of a human being? for the animals and many of them died during the preliminary study “Many research projects are pointless, gratuitously ◎ Autopsies showed that many of the dead subjects had repetitive, fatally flawed, or concerned with the developed ulcers, which are unusual in laboratory animals. obvious or the trivial. If animal suffering is of any Restraint alone was not the explanation; some animals had significance whatsoever, its infliction can only be justified been kept in the restraining chairs for 6 months, received for clearly defined goals. But many experiments are no shock, and did not develop ulcers. ill-conceived or actually unconceived in that no hypothesis has been formulated before conducting the experiment. One BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY or a very few repetitions of an experiment may be needed ◎ Researchers often attempt to replicate the published to confirm the results, but some experiments are repeated findings of others, particularly if those findings are time and again with no epistemological justification” - surprising, novel, or important. Peter Singer ◎ The competitive nature of academic psychology ◎ There is strong pressure on researchers to publish, and the pressure is probably strongest on those whose work has Benefits of Animal Research resulted in a series of failures. ◎ Psychological experiments with animals have led to ◎ However, competition among colleagues for limited treatments of many psychological problems research resources can be a strong deterrent to fraud. ◎ Animal research has contributed significantly to knowledge about drug abuse and physical dependence Plagiarism as well as the development of new drugs for psychological ◎ Most common kind of fraud disorders ◎ To plagiarize means to represent someone else’s ideas, ◎ Studying animals has also advanced our knowledge of words, or written work as your own. human behavior in the areas of perception, conditioning, ◎ Plagiarism is a serious breach of ethics and can result in learning, memory, and stress legal action ◎ As long as animal experimentation continues, researchers have an obligation to behave responsibly. The Tips to avoid Plagiarism situations causing the grievances of the past cannot be ◎ Take complete notes, which include a complete citation undone, but the picture for the future of animal welfare is of the source: author’s name, title of article, journal name, extremely hopeful. volume number, issue number, year of publication, and page ◎ The challenge to contemporary researchers is to ensure numbers. that each human or animal subject contributes something ◎ Within your report, identify the source of any ideas, worthwhile to scientific knowledge words, or information that are not your own. ◎ Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at the 5 FRAUD IN SCIENCE beginning and end of the quotes and indicate where you got Scientific Fraud the quotes ◎ Reporting on research is a necessary part of the ◎ Be careful with paraphrasing scientific process. ◎ Include a complete list of references at the end of the ◎ Fraud in Science is falsification, fabrication, and report. plagiarism ◎ If in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite ◎ Data falsification is a breach of the ethical principle the source anyway. stated succinctly in APA standard 8.10a: “Psychologists do not fabricate data.” “Psychologists take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have actually Several important safeguards performed or to which they have substantially contributed” to keep fraud in check — APA, 2002 (Code of Conduct) ◎ The reviewers and the editor ◎ research articles submitted for publication are reviewed “We take responsibility and credit only for work we have by the editor of the periodical and by several experts in the actually done and credit others (including students and field before they can be accepted for publication. research assistants) for work they have actually performed ◎ Peer Review – an important part of the reporting or to which they have substantially contributed.”— PAP process Code of Ethics ◎ Replication BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl PSYCH 225 - EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Ethical Reports ◎ To be given authorship credit, they need to have made an important contribution to the research. ◎ smaller contributions, such as handing out questionnaires or entering data into the computer, are recognized in acknowledgments or footnotes included in the research report. ◎ Finally, researchers do not take credit for the same research more than once. ◎ Data that have been previously published cannot be published again as if they were original data. References and other readings ◎ Myers, A., and Hansen, C. (2012). Experimental Psychology (7th ed.). Cengage Learning (p. 48-63) ◎ Psychological Association of the Philippines (2010). Code of Ethics for Philippine Psychologists. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 2010, 43 (2), 195-217 ◎ DA Administrative Order No. 40 Series of 1999. Rules and regulations on the conduct of scientific procedures using animals. ◎ Animal Welfare Act of 1998 (OG) BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY 2A. rjyl