Portland And Hydraulic Cement Concrete Review PDF

PORTLAND AND HYDRAULICS CEMENT CONCRETE 10. Grouting Admixtures: Improve properties of grout, accelerate or delay setting. Hydraulic Cement 11. Corrosio...

PORTLAND AND HYDRAULICS CEMENT CONCRETE 10. Grouting Admixtures: Improve properties of grout, accelerate or delay setting. Hydraulic Cement 11. Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixtures: Protect steel in concrete from corrosion. 12. Bonding Admixtures: Strengthen bonds between  Definition: Hydraulic cement sets quickly after old and fresh concrete surfaces. mixing with water and is used to seal structures 13. Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures: against water leakage. Prevent microbial growth on concrete.  Uses: 14. Coloring Admixtures: Pigments added to create o Swimming pools, drainage systems, colored concrete. foundations o Basement walls, manholes, marine applications, chimneys COMPLETED PAVEMENT o Cisterns and fountains, elevator pits Importance of Concrete Slab Thickness Portland Cement  Concrete slab thickness significantly impacts  Definition: Portland cement is made by finely pavement performance and lifespan. grinding clinker (from calcined argillaceous and  A 1-inch reduction in slab thickness can reduce calcareous materials). It's a hydraulic cement that service life by up to 50%. hardens under water.  Composition: Calcium silicates with some gypsum. Techniques for Thickness Determination Types of Portland Cement: 1. Core Boring o Uses ASTM C 174 standard for drilling and 1. Type I: General-purpose cement. extracting concrete cores. 2. Type IA: Air-entrained Type I. o The diameter of core samples is typically 3. Type II: For moderate sulfate resistance. 101.6 mm or 152.4 mm. 4. Type IIA: Air-entrained Type II. o Suitable for sampling asphalt pavement up 5. Type III: For high early strength. to 250 mm thickness. 6. Type IIIA: Air-entrained Type III. 2. Impact-Echo Method 7. Type IV: For low heat of hydration. o Non-destructive testing based on ASTM C 8. Type V: For high sulfate resistance. 1383. o Used to measure thickness, detect internal Admixtures in Concrete: cracks, or air voids without surface damage. o Applicable for structures like concrete  Definition: Admixtures are chemicals added to pavements and walls. concrete to enhance its properties. 3. Magnetic Imaging Tomography (MIT-SCAN-T2) o A handheld device that measures Types of Admixtures: pavement thickness using electromagnetic pulses. 1. Accelerating Admixtures: Speed up setting and o Can measure up to 508 mm (20 in.) and early strength. requires less than a minute per test. 2. Air-Entraining Admixtures: Improve durability under freezing/thawing. Standard Pavement Thickness by DPWH (Philippines) 3. Water-Reducing Admixtures: Increase workability and strength, classified as plasticizers (reduce  Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (PCCP) water by 10–30%). o Minimum 280 mm for new constructions. 4. Retarding Admixtures: Slow down the setting of o 260 mm for rehabilitation (crack and seat concrete, useful in high temperatures. method). 5. Damp-Proofing Admixtures: Make concrete o Reblocking requires matching the original impermeable to water. thickness. 6. Gas-Forming Admixtures: Create bubbles to  Asphalt Pavement counteract settlement and bleeding in concrete. o Minimum 50 mm for overlay works. 7. Air-Detraining Admixtures: Remove excess air o Thickness beyond 50 mm considered only from concrete. if cost-effective compared to PCCP. 8. Alkali-Aggregate Expansion Inhibitors: Prevent reactions between cement alkalis and aggregate silica. Significance of Pavement Thickness Determination 9. Anti-Washout Admixtures: Used in underwater concrete to protect the mix from washing out.  Ensures compliance with proposed thickness in construction plans.   Determines the road's capacity to handle traffic  Carbon Steel: Classified by carbon content (low, loads. medium, high, ultra-high). Used for beams, sheets,  Core boring tests verify if the pavement meets and tools. government standards for public use or  Alloy Steel: Contains other metals like aluminum or reconstruction. nickel. Used in auto parts and pipelines.  Stainless Steel: Resistant to corrosion; used in METALS AND WOODS medical instruments and food equipment.  Tool Steel: Hardened for making tools, includes Introduction to Metals vanadium and tungsten alloys.  Metals possess properties like hardness, shininess, Common Structural Steel Shapes malleability, fusibility, ductility, and good conductivity.  W-shape: Wide flanges, commonly used in beams  Metals are refined from ores extracted from the and columns. earth.  S-shape: Less frequently used I-beam with a sloped  Metals vary widely in their properties due to the flange. addition of other materials.  C-shape: Used in channels where a flat face is required. Properties of Metals  Steel Angle: Shaped like the letter "L," available in equal or unequal leg angles.  Luster: Metals are shiny when cut or polished.  Structural Tees: "T"-shaped cross-section for load-  Malleability: Metals can be bent or shaped easily. bearing applications.  Conductivity: Excellent heat and electricity  Steel Pipe and Tubing: Circular, square, or conductors. rectangular, used in columns and other load-  High melting point: Most metals melt at high bearing structures. temperatures.  Sonorous: Metals produce a ringing sound when Nonferrous Metal Properties struck.  Reactivity: Some metals react with other elements;  Aluminum: Lightweight, malleable, and corrosion- others, like gold and platinum, are less reactive. resistant. Used in roofing and electrical wiring.  Copper: Excellent conductivity, corrosion-resistant, Types of Metals used in pipes, fittings, and wiring.  Lead: Heavy, soft, and corrosion-resistant, used for 1. Ferrous Metals (contain iron) roofing, piping, and radiation shielding. o Wrought Iron: Contains very little carbon,  Zinc: Used in galvanizing steel, die-casting, and as soft, tough, and ductile. Used in decorative an alloying element for corrosion-resistant items, railings, handrails, nuts, and bolts. products. o Cast Iron: Higher carbon content, used in sanitary fittings, pipes, and machine parts. Quality Test for Bending, Tension, and Chemical Analysis Types include grey, white, and malleable cast iron. Terminology o Steel: Alloy of iron with 0.2%-2% carbon. Common types are carbon steels, alloy Stress steels, stainless steels, and tool steels. 2. Nonferrous Metals (do not contain iron)  Definition: Stress is the ratio of the applied force (F) o Aluminum: Lightweight, versatile, to the cross-sectional area. It is defined as "force corrosion-resistant, used in construction. per unit area." o Copper: Highly conductive, ductile,  Types: malleable, used in plumbing and electrical o Tensile Stress: Stress that tends to stretch applications. or lengthen the material, acting normal to o Lead: Dense, corrosion-resistant, used for the stressed area. radiation protection and industrial o Compressive Stress: Stress that applications. compresses or shortens the material, also o Zinc: Used for galvanizing steel to prevent acting normal to the stressed area. corrosion and in various products like o Shearing Stress: Stress that tends to shear screws and nails. the material, acting in the plane of the stressed area at right angles to Steel Classifications compressive or tensile stress. Strain (Deformation)   Definition: Strain is the deformation of a solid due material comparison, alloy development, quality control, to stress. and design under specific circumstances.  Types: o Normal Strain: Elongation or contraction of a line segment. o Shear Strain: Change in angle between Apparatus two originally perpendicular line segments.  Universal (Hydraulic) Testing Machine: Capable of applying tensile loads at a controlled rate of Hooke's Law deformation or load.  Gripping Device: Transmits the load from the  Description: Most metals deform proportionally to testing machine to the specimen. the imposed load within a range of loads. Stress is  Extensometer: Measures the deformation of the proportional to load, and strain is proportional to specimen. deformation, as expressed by Hooke's Law.  Caliper: Measures the dimensions of the specimen. Key Strength Definitions Test Procedure  Bending Strength (Flexural Strength): The ability of 1. Measure Specimen Dimensions: Record a material to resist deformation under load. dimensions necessary to determine the cross-  Tensile Strength: The ability of a material to sectional area at its smallest point. Use the original withstand a great deal of force without breaking or cross-sectional area for all engineering stress deforming, combining strength and flexibility. calculations. 2. Gauge Marks: Use ink and a scribe or punch to place gauge marks on the specimen at the appropriate gauge length. The distance between Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic the gauge marks after fracture will help determine Materials the percent elongation at break. Ensure gauge lengths are consistent for accurate comparisons. Referenced Standard: ASTM E8/E8M – 13a 3. Prepare the Testing Machine: Zero the testing In a tension-compression testing machine, a metal specimen machine without the specimen, then install the is placed under a gradually increasing axial load. The total specimen in the grips and begin loading. The speed elongation over the gauge length is measured at each load of testing can be specified in three ways: increment until failure occurs. From the original cross- o Rate of straining of the specimen (e.g., 0.5 sectional area and length, normal stress (σ) and strain (ε) can in/in of gauge length per minute). be calculated. The resulting graph, with stress (σ) on the y- o Rate of stressing of the specimen. axis and strain (ε) on the x-axis, is called the stress-strain o Rate of separation of the crossheads. diagram. The test rate should remain constant through the Classification of Materials yield point, then can be increased for ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break measurements.  Ductile Materials: These materials exhibit large tensile strains before rupture (e.g., structural steel, aluminum). 4. Conduct the Test: Continue until specimen failure or fracture. After removing the broken sample, fit  Brittle Materials: These materials show relatively the fractured ends together and measure the small strain before rupture (e.g., cast iron, distance between the gauge marks to the nearest concrete). An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm often 0.05 millimeters. serves as the dividing line between ductile and brittle materials. Standard Test Methods for Bend Testing of Material for Ductility: Guided Bend Referenced Standard: Tension Testing Methodology Significance and Use:  ASTM E290-14 Tension tests provide information on the strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial tensile stresses, aiding in Key Concepts:   Forces and Stresses: oForce range: 300 kN to 2,000 kN (67,500 o Bending induces: lbf to 450,000 lbf)  Flexural Stresses: Result from the o Ideal for static tension/compression bending moment. applications requiring high force  Shearing Stresses: Occur at cross- capacities. sections during bending. o Comes with its own grips. o Deflection: Occurs perpendicular to the  ASTM E290 Guided Bend Weld Test Fixture: material's longitudinal axis. o Converts axial or rotary motion from ELF and Instron fatigue testers into bending Testing Apparatus: motions.  Bend Test Machines: Plunger or Mandrel: o Universal Testing Machines: Configured for evaluating:  A plunger applies force to bend the specimen into a  Material ductility 180° bend against rollers on a base.  Bend strength  Fracture strength Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Carbon  Resistance to fracture Steel and Related Materials Guided Bend Test Method: Referenced Standard: ASTM E350-95  Setup: Overview: o Specimen is bent using a mandrel or plunger with defined dimensions.  This test method outlines procedures for the o The mid-length of the specimen is forced chemical analysis of various steel types and iron: between two supports. o Carbon steels  Inspection Post-Bending: o Low-alloy steels o Examine the convex surface for: o Silicon electrical steels  Cracks o Ingot iron  Surface irregularities o Wrought iron o Failure Criteria:  Fracture indicates failure. Key Points:  If no complete fracture occurs, count and size of visible cracks are assessed:  Scope and Complexity: o Some concentration ranges for elements  Cracks within one are too broad for a single test method. thickness of the edge are o Multiple test methods are available for not failures. certain elements to accommodate varying  Corner cracks are compositions. significant only if they o Users must select the appropriate test exceed specified sizes. method by referring to the Scope and Interference sections based on the alloy's Significance and Use: composition.  Quality Evaluation: Bend tests assess a material's Significance and Use: resistance to cracking and surface irregularities during a continuous bend.  Primary Purpose:  Testing Guidelines: o The methods are intended as referee o No reversal of the bend force during tests. methods for verifying compliance with compositional specifications. Apparatus Specifications: o Relevant for standards set by ASTM Committees A-1 (Steel, Stainless Steel,  300 Series Electromechanical Universal Test and Related Alloys) and A-4 (Iron Machines: Castings). o Force range: 5 kN to 600 kN (1,125 lbf to  User Expectations: 135,000 lbf) o Users should be trained analysts capable o Suitable for static tension/compression of executing common laboratory tests. procedures safely and effectively. o Available in tabletop and floor-standing o Testing should occur in a well-equipped models. laboratory, adhering to appropriate  600 Series Universal Test Machines: quality control practices. Reinforcing Steel (Rebar)  Cost: Steel reinforcement can be expensive, raising overall construction costs. Overview:  Melting at High Temperatures: Steel can melt under extreme heat, necessitating proper tying  Reinforcing steel, commonly known as rebar, is rather than welding. used in various concrete structures (bridges, buildings, homes) to enhance strength. Using Rusty Rebars:  Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension; rebar compensates for this weakness.  Rusty rebars can be used if: o The rust does not reduce the weight or Types of Steel Reinforcement: height of the deformations below required standards. 1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars: o Excess rust is considered harmful. o Commonly used for R.C.C (Reinforced  Cleaning: Remove oil/grease with solvents; wash Cement Concrete) structures. off any mud before use. o Features surface deformations (ribs) for better bonding with concrete. Production of Rebars o Typical yield strength: 60,000 psi. 2. Cold Worked Steel Bars: Reinforcing bars, commonly known as rebar, are essential o Produced from hot rolled bars via cold components in construction, primarily used to strengthen working (twisting and drawing). concrete structures. The production of rebar involves o Results in lower ductility compared to hot several key steps, from the melting of steel to its delivery at rolled bars. the job site. 3. Mild Steel Plain Bars: o Feature a smooth surface, used for 1. Steel Melting and Shaping: The process begins by economical small projects. melting carbon or alloy steel to a liquid form. This o Tensile yield strength: 40,000 psi. requires extremely high temperatures. Once the 4. Prestressing Steel Bars: steel is melted, it is shaped by pulling it through o Composed of strands or tendons made of small round openings, giving the rebar its multiple cold-formed wires. distinctive shape. o High tensile strength: 250,000 – 270,000 2. Types of Rebar: Unfinished steel is the most psi. economical form of rebar. However, for projects that may expose rebar to harsh conditions, such as Need for Steel Reinforcement: saltwater, epoxy-coated or stainless steel rebars are preferred. Rust can form on untreated rebar  Plain concrete lacks tensile strength; steel when exposed to moisture, leading to internal reinforcement provides the required tensile pressure buildup and potential cracking of properties, preventing cracks under tension. concrete. Therefore, most developers opt for  Similar coefficients of thermal expansion between higher-grade materials to ensure durability and steel and concrete minimize stress during safety. temperature changes. 3. Twisting and Grooving: After shaping, the  Proper bonding is achieved through patterned manufacturer adds twists and grooves to the surfaces on rebar. rebar's surface. This texturing improves the bond between the rebar and the concrete, preventing Advantages of Steel Reinforcement: slippage. 4. Safety Precautions: Due to the hazardous nature of rebar during installation, its ends are typically  Compatibility with Concrete: Does not float during capped with plastic to protect construction workers placement. from injury.  Robustness: Can withstand construction rigors. 5. Distribution and Bending: Rebar is usually  Bent Property: Can be bent to specifications for delivered directly from the manufacturer to the easy transport. construction site, although contractors can also  Recyclability: Can be recycled after the structure's arrange for pickups. Once on site, the rebar may service life. need to be bent according to specific project  Availability: Readily available from local suppliers. requirements. This is achieved using specialized hydraulic benders and cutters. Since not all types of Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement: rebar can be welded, many construction companies utilize wire and coupling splices for connecting the  Reactivity: Corrosion can occur if moisture and salt ends. penetrate the concrete cover, weakening the structure. Bar Markings To identify reinforcing steel bars, various markings are used, Reinforcing steel must be both strong in tension and ductile each serving a specific purpose: enough to be shaped or bent cold, ensuring its effectiveness in concrete applications.  Manufacturer Identification: The first letter or symbol indicates the producing mill and the Tensile Test deformation pattern of the bar.  Bar Size: This marking denotes the diameter and The effectiveness of rebar is enhanced when embedded in length of the bar. concrete. To ensure quality, manufacturers conduct  Type of Steel: Different symbols indicate the type mechanical testing to verify that the rebar meets specific of reinforcing steel: physical, chemical, and mechanical standards. The following o "S" for carbon-steel (ASTM A615) are common test categories: o "W" for low-alloy steel (ASTM A706) o "SS" for stainless steel (ASTM A955)  Tensile Testing: Measures the bar's ability to o "R" for rail-steel (ASTM A996) withstand tension. o "I" for axle-steel (ASTM A996)  Bend Testing: Assesses the flexibility of the o "A" for rail-steel (ASTM A996) material. o "CS" for low-carbon chromium (ASTM  Compression Testing: Evaluates its strength under A1035) compressive forces.  Grade of Steel: The last marking indicates the  Fatigue Testing: Determines the rebar's endurance grade, which can be: under repeated stress. o 40: grade 40 o 60: grade 60 Equipment Considerations: o 75: grade 75 o 4: grade 420 (also grade 60) o 5: grade 520 (also grade 75)  Universal (Hydraulic) Testing Machine: Essential for conducting tensile tests.  Accommodating Bent Specimens: The equipment Additionally, the grade can be determined by the number of must manage specimens with slight bends. lines on the bar: no lines indicate grade 40, one line for grade 60, two lines for grade 75, three lines for grades 80 and 100, and four lines for grade 120. Testing Procedures: Basic Properties of Reinforced Steel 1. Pretest: Prepare the machine and ensure accurate zeroing of the force measurement. 2. Preload: Apply minimal preload to seat the Rebar serves various functions in construction, including: specimen properly. 3. Elastic Region: The initial response of the material  Primary and Secondary Reinforcement: It acts as a before yielding is often non-linear due to specimen primary and secondary support system for concrete straightening. structures. 4. Yielding: A defined yield point is observed as the  Load Distribution: Rebar helps distribute material transitions from elastic to plastic concentrated loads across a broader area. deformation.  Stability for Other Bars: It assists in maintaining the 5. Plastic Region: The test speed can increase post- position of other steel bars during construction. yielding, allowing for efficient completion. The essential properties of reinforcing steel include: Results Nomenclature 1. Strength: The uniform atomic structure contributes Accurate reporting of test results is crucial. Testing standards to the material's strength. provide specific terminology for results, which may differ 2. Ductility: Rebar can be drawn into wires, between organizations like ISO and ASTM. Key showcasing a higher ductility than other metals. considerations include: 3. Malleability: The material can be easily formed into sheets due to its intrinsic properties.  No Extensometer: For lower-grade bars, yield 4. Weldability: Rebar can be welded easily, as its points can be identified from the stress-extension melting temperature falls within the range of most curve. welding equipment.  With Extensometer: Higher-grade bars often 5. Durability: Rebar withstands years of wear and require the offset method for yield strength tear, maintaining integrity under stress. determination. 6. Toughness: Its resistance to sudden impacts makes it a reliable reinforcement material. Common Yield Strength Measurement:   The most frequently used offset for determining o Refers to how light reflects off the wood's yield strength is 0.2%. This involves creating an surface. offset line parallel to the linear portion of the  Texture stress-strain graph. o The feel of a surface (tactile vs. visual):  Tactile: actual touch sensation. Elongation Measurement:  Visual: appearance of texture.  Odor  Using an extensometer can automate the recording o Describes the scent of wood; examples: of elongation results, contributing to efficient and  Cocobolo: spicy scent used in safe testing procedures. perfumes.  Lignum Vitae: used in perfumes.  Sandalwood: retains scent for Characteristics and Physical Properties of Wood decades.  Moisture  Hardness o The moisture content remains steady at o Defined as the quality of being hard. equilibrium with environmental o Measured using the Janka test: the force conditions. required to embed a.444-inch steel ball into wood.  Conductivity o Measures how easily heat/electric charge passes through a material. Tests for Tensile Strength of Wood o Thermal conductivity:  Along the grain: 0.22 W/moC  Tensile Strength: Resistance to tearing; greater (pine). along the grain.  Perpendicular to the grain: 0.14  Referenced Standard: ASTM D 143-83. W/moC.  Density o Defined as mass per volume. o Varies by tree species, growth Types of Wood environment, and age:  Fast-growing trees = low density. 1. Softwoods  Slow-growing, older trees = high o From conifer trees (Gymnosperms); density. examples include pine, cedar, fir, spruce,  Warping redwood. o Defined as bending or twisting of wood. 2. Hardwoods o Types of warping: o From deciduous trees (Angiosperms);  Bow: bends along the length. examples include oak, maple, cherry,  Crook: bends at the thicker face. mahogany, walnut.  Kink: creates a pronounced kink 3. Engineered Wood in the width. o Manufactured wood products; includes  Cup: edges cup towards each plywood, MDF, etc. other.  Twist/Wind: ends twist in opposite directions.  Cracking Failures in Wood o Occurs as wood shrinks during drying; splits are referred to as ‘checks.’  Swelling  Simple Tension: Direct pulling causing failure. o Increase in dimensions due to moisture  Cross-Grained Tension: Tension oblique to the content changes: grain causes fractures.  Absorbs moisture in humid  Splintering Tension: Multiple slight failures. conditions, causing swelling.  Brittle Tension: Clean break through the wood.  Loses moisture in dry conditions,  Compression Failure: Buckling due to compressive causing shrinking. stress.  Internal Stress  Horizontal Shear Failure: Sliding along each other. o Stress within wood due to thermal changes, working, or molecular irregularities.  Color Introduction to Asphalt or Bituminous Materials o Describes hue, lightness, and saturation of wood.  Luster   Bituminous Materials: Used for roadway 6. Surface texture for bond strength. construction due to binding characteristics, 7. Absorption to bond with asphalt. waterproofing, and cost-effectiveness. 8. Stripping resistance to prevent separation from  Bitumen: Amorphous, black cementitious asphalt. substance derived from petroleum. Kinds and Uses of Asphalt Classification of Bituminous Materials I. Kinds of Asphalt 1. Cutback Bitumen o Blended with hydrocarbon solvent; 1. Porous Asphalt viscosity determined by solvent o Introduced in the mid-1970s, porous proportion. asphalt allows water to drain through the 2. Bitumen Emulsion pavement, making it suitable for parking o Mixture of bitumen and water; requires lots and reducing surface runoff. emulsifiers to stabilize. 2. Perpetual Pavement 3. Bituminous Primers o This is a multi-layer paving method o Absorbed by road surfaces; useful for designed for heavy loads. It features a stabilized surfaces. strong, flexible base layer to absorb stress, 4. Modified Bitumen a permanent middle layer for stability, and o Enhanced with additives for improved a smooth top surface for driving. properties; used in extreme climates. 3. Hot Mix Asphalt o Used primarily for driveways, hot mix asphalt creates a strong and durable surface that withstands freezing and Requirements of Bitumen thawing, making it easy to maintain. 4. Warm-Mix Asphalt  Not highly temperature susceptible. o Produced at temperatures 50-100°F lower  Adequate viscosity for mixing and compaction. than hot mix asphalt, this type reduces fuel consumption and greenhouse gas  Good affinity and adhesion between bitumen and emissions while maintaining performance. aggregates. 5. Quiet Asphalt o Designed to minimize noise pollution, quiet asphalt is often used in roadways near residential areas to reduce the sound Composition of Asphalt generated by traffic. 6. Thin Overlays  Ingredients: o Made from warm-mix asphalt and o 95% aggregates (crushed stone, gravel, recycled materials, thin overlays improve sand). ride quality and reduce noise, pavement o 5% bitumen (polycyclic hydrocarbons). distress, and overall life-cycle costs.  Durability Factors: o Affected by moisture, temperature, traffic II. Uses of Asphalt volume, and exposure to chemicals.  Road Construction Asphalt Maintenance o Asphalt serves as the primary binder in road construction, making up 70% of its  Regular maintenance is crucial for longevity. use. It enhances fuel economy by reducing  Sealcoating every 2-3 years to protect against tire friction and lowers carbon dioxide oxidation and cracking. emissions.  Crack Filling: Important for preventing larger  Bituminous Waterproofing damages. o Asphalt is also vital in producing o Types: Cold liquid pour (up to ½” width), waterproofing products, including roofing Hot pour (up to 1” width). felt and flat roof sealants, preventing leaks and water damage. Desirable Properties of Aggregates for Asphalt III. Other Products Made with Bituminous Materials 1. Size and grading. 2. Cleanliness from foreign substances. 1. Coal Tar Pitch 3. Toughness to resist crushing. o A black hydrocarbon from distilling coke- 4. Soundness to resist weather deterioration. oven tar, used in various paints, roofing, 5. Particle shape for strength and workability.  and waterproofing materials. It has a bitumen. The process is streamlined, softening point near 150°F (65°C). reducing maintenance costs but requiring 2. Felts precise control of aggregate quality. o Sheet materials made from cellulose 2. Batch Asphalt Plant Process Flow fibers, felts are saturated with asphalt to o Aggregates are fed into the plant and create tar paper, used as underlayment in heated before being mixed in batches. This roofing and construction. method allows for more precise control 3. Ice and Water Shield over the mix, ensuring consistent quality, o A waterproofing membrane made of especially important when working with rubberized asphalt and polyethylene, used multiple clients. in roofing for areas prone to leaks, like valleys and eaves. Laboratory Tests for Bituminous Materials 4. Fiberglass Sheet Material o Fiberglass mats impregnated with asphalt The quality and performance of bituminous materials used are used for various roofing and in construction, particularly in pavements, depend on their waterproofing applications. properties. Various laboratory tests are conducted to assess 5. Fireproofing Paper their consistency, viscosity, temperature susceptibility, and o Made from asbestos fibers, this paper is overall safety. Here’s a summary of the key tests performed used as underlayment in roofing and as on bitumen: vapor barriers in walls and floors. 6. Waterproof Coatings 1. Penetration Test o These are applied to masonry walls to resist water pressure and protect The penetration test measures the hardness or softness of structures from leaks, with different types bitumen. A standard needle, loaded with 100g, penetrates used for above and below grade the bitumen at a controlled temperature (25°C) for 5 applications. seconds. The depth of penetration, measured in tenths of a millimeter, indicates the bitumen's softness. Higher IV. Bituminous Roof Covering penetration values suggest softer bitumen, which is preferable in cooler climates. 1. Roll Roofing o Consists of fiberglass mats or organic felt 2. Ductility Test coated with bitumen. Available in several types, it provides durable, attractive Ductility reflects the ability of bitumen to stretch without roofing solutions. breaking. A sample is prepared into a briquette and 2. Hot Bitumen Built-Up Roof Membrane submerged in a water bath at 27°C for about 90 minutes. The o Involves layering felt with hot bitumen, distance it elongates before breaking is recorded in creating a robust, waterproof membrane centimeters. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm is typically suitable for various roof designs. required. 3. Modified Asphalt Roofing Systems o Comprising polymer-modified bitumen, these systems are reinforced with fabrics 3. Softening Point Test for consistent quality and performance across diverse construction applications. This test determines the temperature at which bitumen 4. Cold-Applied Asphalt Roofing System softens under specific conditions. Using a Ring and Ball o Utilizes coated sheets and fabrics with apparatus, a steel ball is placed on the bitumen sample cold-applied waterproofing agents, suspended in a liquid medium (like water or glycerin). The making it suitable for various roofing temperature is gradually increased, and the point at which needs without heat application. the bitumen touches a specified metal plate is recorded. A higher softening point indicates better performance in hot V. Difference Between Asphalt and Bitumen climates.  Bitumen is the liquid binder in asphalt, while 4. Specific Gravity Test asphalt is a mixture of bitumen, aggregate, and sand. Bitumen is typically used in a sealed surface Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of layer, while asphalt is produced in plants that heat bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water at 27°C. and mix the components. This test helps classify bitumen based on its density, which varies depending on its chemical composition. Specific VI. Asphalt Plant Processes gravity typically ranges from 0.97 to 1.02. 1. Continuous Asphalt Plant Process Flow 5. Viscosity Test o Cold aggregates are continuously fed into the plant, heated, and mixed with Viscosity indicates the resistance of bitumen to flow. It is performance under varying temperature essential for understanding the workability of bituminous conditions. mixtures at application temperatures. Viscosity is measured using orifice viscometers, where the time taken for a specific Bitumen Extraction Test volume of bitumen to pass through an orifice is recorded. High viscosity can lead to difficulties during mixing and The Bitumen Extraction Test determines the actual amount compaction. of bitumen used in asphaltic concrete. This is essential for ensuring the durability and resistance of pavements. 6. Flash and Fire Point Test Apparatus Required These tests determine the temperature at which the vapors of bitumen can ignite. The flash point is when vapors catch  An oven maintained at 110°C fire momentarily, while the fire point is the lowest  A flat pan for the sample temperature at which the material ignites and burns  A balance for weighing continuously. These values are critical for safety during  Centrifuge extraction apparatus storage and application.  Filter ring or filter paper 7. Float Test Extraction Methods Used when other tests are not applicable, the float test 1. Centrifuge Method: This is the preferred method measures the consistency of bitumen. A sample is cooled globally. It involves immersing the asphalt sample and placed in a float assembly submerged in water at 50°C. in a solvent (like trichloroethylene) and centrifuging The time taken for water to pass through the sample is to extract the bitumen. recorded as the float value. 2. Extraction Bottle Method: Less common and involves manual extraction using a bottle. 8. Water Content Test Centrifuge Method Procedure This test assesses the amount of water in bitumen, which should be minimized to prevent foaming upon heating. The 1. Sample Preparation: The asphalt sample is heated water content is determined by mixing a known weight of if necessary to facilitate separation. The weight of bitumen with a petroleum distillate, heating it, and the sample (W1) is recorded. measuring the condensed water weight. The maximum 2. Centrifugation: The sample is covered with solvent, allowable water content is typically 0.2% by weight. and the apparatus is operated until the solvent no longer flows. The sample is centrifuged multiple 9. Loss on Heating Test times with fresh solvent until clear extracts are obtained. Bitumen loses volatile components when heated, which affects its performance. A sample is heated to 163°C for 5 hours, and the weight loss is recorded. Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not lose more than 1% weight, although a 2% loss is acceptable for softer grades. Grading of Bitumen Bitumen can be graded using various methods, including: 1. Grading by Chewing: An outdated method where inspectors would chew the bitumen to assess its hardness. 2. Penetration Grading: Based on the penetration value measured at 25°C. Higher values indicate softer bitumen. The common grades include: o Hardest: 40-50 o Medium: 60-70 o Soft: 200-300 3. Viscosity Grading: Introduced to address issues with penetration grading by measuring viscosity at 60°C. 4. Superpave Performance Grading: Developed in the 1990s, this method considers long-term