Review Test # 1 Revised PDF

***Chapter 13*** ***The Brain and Cranial Nerves*** *[Prosencephalon] becomes the forebrain which becomes the cerebrum.* *[Mesencephalon] becomes the midbrain* *[Rhombencephalon] becomes the hindbrain which is continuous with the spinal cord* ***Major parts of the brain: Know location of each p...

***Chapter 13*** ***The Brain and Cranial Nerves*** *[Prosencephalon] becomes the forebrain which becomes the cerebrum.* *[Mesencephalon] becomes the midbrain* *[Rhombencephalon] becomes the hindbrain which is continuous with the spinal cord* ***Major parts of the brain: Know location of each part*** 1. *Brain stem* 2. *Cerebellum* 3. *Diencephalon* 4. *Cerebrum* *1) **[Brain stem]** -- continuation of the spinal cord. The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the diencephalon.* *A. [Medulla oblongata] (medulla)* *Respiratory center -- Regulates basic rhythm of breathing* *Reflexes for vomiting, swallowing, hiccupping, coughing* B. *Pons - Signals for voluntary movements from the cerebral cortex are relayed through the pons* C. *Midbrain -- coordinates movements of head, eyes, and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli* ***2) [Cerebellum]*** *Second largest part of the brain* *Primary function -- evaluates how well movements initiated in the cerebrum are being carried out.* *Coordinates skilled movements* *Surface area is highly folded* *If damaged -- may get [Ataxia]* ***3) [Diencephalon]** extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum.* A. *Thalamus - Major relay station for most sensory impulses. Makes up 80% of the diencephalon.* B. *Hypothalamus* *Very important in homeostasis* *Hypothalamus controls many activities of the Autonomic Nervous system* C. *Epithalamus* *Contains the [pineal gland] -- secretes melatonin. Helps with biological clock* ***4) [Cerebrum]*** *Seat of intelligence* *[Longitudinal fissure]- most prominent fissure -- separates the cerebrum into right and left halves called [cerebral hemispheres]* *[Limbic System]* *Ring of structures* *"Emotional brain" - as it governs emotional aspects of behavior.* *Also involved in olfaction and memory* *[Sensory areas of the Cerebral Cortex]* *Primary visual area (the area associated with visual processing) - occipital lobe* *Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli* *Three extensions of the dura mater separate parts of the brain:* *Falx cerebri separate the two cerebral hemispheres.* *Falx cerebelli separate the two cerebellar hemispheres.* *Tentorium cerebelli separate the cerebrum from the cerebellum.* ***[Cranial Nerves]*** *I. Olfactory n.* *Smell* *II. Optic n.* *Vision* *Optic nerves cross at the optic chiasm* *III. Occulomotor n.* *Eye Movement* *Strabismus* *Ptosis* *IV. Trochlear n. - Smallest of the 12 cranial nerves.* *Eye movement* *V. Trigeminal n.* *Largest cranial nerve* *Branches: Ophthalmic* *Maxillary* *Mandibular* *Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux)* *VI. Abducens n.* *Eye movement* *VII. Facial n.* *Facial expression* *Bell's Palsy* *VIII. Vestibulocochlear n.* *Equilibrium* *Hearing* *Injury:* *Tinitus* *Vertigo* *IX. Glossopharyngeal n.* *Tongue and throat.* *X. Vagus n.* *"Wanderer"* *XI. Accessory n.* *Supplies Sternocleidomastoid and Trapezius muscles* *Coordinates head movements, shrugging of the shoulders* *XII. Hypoglossal n.* *Muscles of the tongue* *Speech and swallowing* *To diagnose -- stick out your tongue. Tongue will deviate to affected side* ***Chapter 13*** ***Sensory Receptors*** ***[Location]*** *Exteroceptors* *Interoceptors (visceroreceptors)* ***Type of Stimulus. Please know these definitions*** *Mechanoreceptors* *Thermoreceptors* *Nociceptors* *Photoreceptors* *Chemoreceptors* *Osmoreceptors* ***Learn slide 10 -- stages of sleep*** ***Chapter 14*** ***The Autonomic Nervous System*** ***Central nervous system*** *Brain* *Spinal cord* ***Peripheral nervous system*** *Somatic nervous system* *Autonomic nervous system* *Sympathetic nervous system* *Parasympathetic nervous system* *Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - Monitors our internal environment* *Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic- These two systems balance each other out* *[**Sympathetic**] --"Fight or flight" - increased alertness and metabolic activities (speeding car, angry dog) Increased production of ATP* *Dilation of the pupils* *Increased heart rate (rapid heart beat)* *Increased force of contraction of cardiac muscle* *Dilation of the airways* *Constriction of blood vessels supplying kidneys and Gastrointestinal tract (GI)* *Increased blood supply to skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle.* *Increase in glycogenolysis (this increases blood level of glucose)* *Decreased salivation* *Dilation of blood vessels to organs involved in combating stress (heart, skeletal muscles)* *Constriction of blood vessels not involved in combating stress (GI system, kidneys)* ***[Parasympathetic]** -- rest and digest* *Increased digestive and urinary function* *Increased salivation* *Heart rate decreases* *Decreased diameter of airways* *Decreased diameter of the pupils (constrict)* ***Anatomy of Autonomic nervous system*** *[Ganglion] -- a collection of cell bodies in the PNS* ***Sympathetic** nervous system often called the [Thoracolumbar] division* *[Sympathetic ganglia:\ ] 1) [Sympathetic trunk] ([vertebral chain or paravertebral ganglia)]. Lie in a vertical chain on either side of the vertebral column* *2) [Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia]. These lie anterior to the vertebral column* ***Autonomic Plexuses*** *A network of sympathetic and parasympathetic axons.* *Cardiac plexus -- supplies the heart* *Pulmonary plexus -- supplies the bronchial tree* *Celiac (solar) plexus- largest.* ***ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors*** *Based on the neurotransmitter they produce and release, autonomic neurons are classified as either [cholinergic] or [adrenergic]* ***Cholinergic** neurons release acetyl**choline** (ACh).* *Two types of cholinergic receptors:* *Nicotinic receptors* *Muscarinic receptors* *Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) quickly inactivates Ach* *Effects triggered by cholinergic neurons are brief* ***Adrenergic Receptors*** *Adrenergic receptors bind norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine* *Two types of receptors: Alpha and Beta receptors* *The effects triggered by Adrenergic neurons usually last longer than those triggered by cholinergic neurons.* ***The Endocrine System*** ***Chapter 16*** *Nervous and Endocrine Systems - act together to coordinate functions of all body systems* *[Nervous system]* *Nerve impulses/Neurotransmitters* *Faster responses, briefer effects* *[Endocrine system]* *Hormones -- released in one part of the body but regulates activity of cells in other parts* *Slower responses, effects last longer, broader influence* *Exocrine glands* *Endocrine glands* *Hormones affect only specific target tissues with specific receptors* ***Hormone types*** *[Local hormones] -- act locally. Example -- nitric oxide.* *[Paracrine] -- act on neighboring cells* *[Autocrine] -- act on the same cell that secreted them* ***Chemical classes of hormones:*** *[Amino acid derivatives]* *Thyroid hormones* *Epinephrine* *Melatonin* *[Peptide hormones ]* *Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)* *Oxytocin* *[Lipid derivatives ]* *Steroid hormones -- androgens, estrogens, progesterone, calcitriol, corticosteroids* *[Mechanism of hormone action]:* *Lipid soluble hormones- bind to receptors inside target cells* *Water soluble hormones -- bind to receptors on the plasma membrane* *Most hormonal regulation by negative feedback* *Very few examples of positive feedback -- nursing, childbirth* *Pituitary gland and hypothalamus -- "master glands"* *Pituitary attached to hypothalamus by **infundibulum*** ***[Pituitary gland]*** ***Anterior lobe*** *[Human growth hormone] - Promote cell growth, protein synthesis, tissue repair* *[Thyroid stimulating hormone] (TSH)-stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones* *[Follicle stimulating hormone] (FSH)- **ovaries**- initiates development of oocytes, secretion of estrogens* ***Testes** -- stimulates sperm production* *[Luteinizing hormone] (LH)- **ovaries** -- stimulates ovulation (spike, surge of LH), ovarian secretion of estrogens and progesterone* ***Testes** -- stimulates testosterone production* *[Prolactin] -- promotes mammary gland development (increases during pregnancy)* *[Adrenocorticotropic hormone] (ACTH) -- stimulates cortex of the adrenal gland* *[Melanocyte-stimulating hormone] (MSH)* ***Pituitary gland*** ***Posterior lobe*** *[Oxytocin]- contraction of smooth muscle in walls of uterus during childbirth* *Milk ejection from mammary glands* *Positive feedback* *[Antidiuretic hormone] ([ADH)] [(vasopressin]) -- decreases water loss in the body -- less urination, less sweating. (Alcohol, caffeine inhibits secretion of ADH)* *Decreases urine production by causing the kidneys to return more water to the blood* *. Causes constriction of arterioles which increases blood pressure* *[Diabetes Insipidus] -- hyposecretion of ADH or nonfunctioning ADH receptors* ***[Thyroid gland]*** *Anterior to the trachea* *Inferior to the larynx* *Butterfly or H shaped* *Two lobes* *[Calcitonin] -- inhibits activity of osteoclasts -- less bone breaks down (bone resorption is inhibited/decreased) Decreases blood Ca2+ level (Lowers blood Ca^2+^ )* *Chart: Symptoms of **Hypothyroidism*** *Fatigue* *Cold intolerance* *Slow heart beat* *Weight gain* *Brittle nails* ***Hyperthyroidism** -- inc. heart rate, more forceful heartbeat, increased blood pressure, exopthalmus* ***[Parathyroid glands]*** *Embedded in lobes of thyroid gland (posterior)* *Usually 4 (two superior, two inferior)* *Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (parathormone) -- increases number and activity of osteoclasts -- bone breaks down (Elevates bone resorption )-- increased level of blood calcium (raises blood level of calcium) (help elevate blood Ca2+ level)* *PTH acts on the kidneys to decrease loss of Ca2+ in the urine* *PTH stimulates formation of calcitriol* *Major regulator of calcium in the blood* ***[Adrenal glands]*** ***[Adrenal cortex ]*** *Mineralocorticortoids -- Aldosterone (main mineralocorticoid) Regulates homeostasis of sodium and potassium, helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume* *Glucocorticoids -- affect glucose homeostasis* *Cortisol (hydrocortisone), corticosterone, cortisone* *Cortisol most abundant Glucocorticoid (95% of Glucocorticoid activity)* *Resistance to stress, anti-inflammatory, depression of immune system, glucose formation, protein breakdown, lipolysis* ***[Adrenal medulla]** -- epinephrine (adrenaline) - 80%* *Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)* ***[Pancreas]*** *Pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans (endocrine function)* *Alpha cells -- [glucagon] -- raises blood sugar* *Beta cells -- [insulin] -- lowers blood sugar* *Delta or D cells secrete [somatostatin] -- inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon* ***Thymus*** *Involved in T cell maturation (immunity)* *Gets smaller with age (70 g as infant to 3 g in adults)* ***Aging:*** *Growth hormone decreases* *Thyroid hormone decreases* *Calcitonin decreases (increased PTH)* *Pancreas -- decreases insulin* ***Pituitary Gland Disorders*** ***[Pituitary dwarfism]** -- Hyposecretion of Human growth hormone during the growth years.* *Bone growth slows. Treatment: human growth hormone* ***[Gigantism]** -- hypersecretion of human growth hormone during childhood.* ***[Acromegaly]** -- hypersecretion of human growth hormone during adulthood.* *Large hands, feet, frontal, zygomatic, mandible, maxilla bones* ***[Diabetes Insipidus]** -- either inability to secrete enough Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or defects in the ADH receptors.* ***Thyroid Gland Disorders*** ***[Congenital hypothyroidism (Cretinism)]** -- Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone that is present at birth. Severely stunted physical and mental growth.* ***[Myxedema]** -- hypothyroidism during the adult years.* ***[Grave's disease]** -- form of hyperthyroidism. May have exopthalmus.* ***[Hashimoto's Disease]** - also known as chronic lymphatic thyroiditis. Most common cause of hypothyroidism in the United States. Autoimmune* ***Adrenal Gland Disorders*** ***[Cushing's Syndrome]** -- hypersecretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. "Moon face"* *"Buffalo hump"* *Poor wound healing* *Redistribution of body fat* ***[Pheochromocytomas]** -- tumors of the adrenal medulla. Hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Increased blood pressure, racing heart, stroke, increased force of contraction of heart* ***[Diabetes Mellitus]** -- high levels of glucose in the blood and urine* *[Type 1 Diabetes] (insulin dependent diabetes) -- Person's immune system destroys pancreatic Beta cells so person has low levels of insulin.* *[Type 2 Diabetes] (noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus) -- 90% of all cases* ***[Hyperinsulinism]** -- too much insulin. Main symptom -- hypoglycemia. Shock due to an overdose of insulin is called insulin shock.*