Research Methods 1 PDF

5.1.4 Self-reports: questionnaires 5 KEY TERMS Think! open question What is the difference between an open question and a closed question? closed question self-report...

5.1.4 Self-reports: questionnaires 5 KEY TERMS Think! open question What is the difference between an open question and a closed question? closed question self-report Think! questionnaire interview Imagine you are investigating the effect of stress on the content of people’s dreams. Which type of question (open or closed) would be best to find out about people’s stress 5 Research methodology rich (as in data) levels and their dream content? target population Think! Why do you think some researchers prefer rating scales with an even number of choices, such as six-point scales from 0–5, and others prefer to use scales with an odd number, such as seven-point scales from 0–6? Self-reports are a method of research where the participant responds to either open or closed questions. Data may be gathered about their beliefs and opinions as well how they believe they would behave in certain situations. Self-reports include both questionnaires and interviews and may collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Questionnaires Questionnaires can be completed in a number of ways. Printed questionnaires may be completed by hand, but nowadays most questionnaires are distributed digitally and participants complete them online. This saves printing and postage costs and data can be collated much quickly and easily. This said, online questionnaires can only be completed by participants who have access to the internet and understand the technology, meaning traditional ‘pen and paper’ surveys are still used and may be more convenient for many types of research. Closed questions Closed questions offer a fixed choice of answers. They may use some form of scale such as a Likert scale, in which the participant can circle or tick the response to show the extent to which they agree with a statement. An example of a Likert scale might be: I do not like people invading my personal space, especially if I do not know them. 2          1          3          4          5 Please circle the response that best fits your view: 1 = Completely disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Completely agree. Here is another example of a closed question is: ‘Do you find mindfulness meditation relaxing? Yes/No.’ This type of closed question may not provide enough options to reflect the participants’ range of experiences with mindfulness meditation. For example, it is not possible to communicate that you occasionally find mindfulness meditation relaxing but often find it ineffective. In this example, a rating scale may allow participants to provide more valid responses. For example, To what extent do you agree: Mindfulness meditation helps me to relax 0 = Never found it helpful to 5 = Aways very helpful. Although dichotomous questions (with only two answers) are often not very useful, they may be helpful if you wish to provide contingency questions. These allow the participant to ignore questions that are not relevant to them. For example: Have you ever tried mindfulness meditation as a way of relaxing? Yes/No. If yes, please answer questions 2–5. If no, please continue to question 6. 180 9781398353008.indb 180 08/07/22 11:19 AM  Rating scale: forced/fixed choice Some of the studies in the options topics use rating scales where respondents must make a forced/fixed choice. This type of scale does not allow the participants to respond with 5 answers like ‘unsure/undecided/don’t know/neutral’ as it is intended to ‘force’ the participant to make a response and express an opinion. Forced-choice questions are often written as a statement that participants have to agree or disagree with or give a ‘yes/no’ answer to. Fixed-choice questionnaires produce quantitative data, which allows for objective comparisons to be made between people; however, participants’ answers may lack validity as the fixed responses may not exactly match what they would like to say. 5.1 Research methods Open questions Open questions allow the participants to express their opinion more freely and tend to start with words such as ‘why’ and ‘how’. These words encourage participants to give detailed, qualitative answers. The data they provide is often described as rich because it allows the researcher to understand the complexity of the issues they are asking about. This is because participants are able to explore the reasons behind their initial thoughts and feelings in greater depth. These sorts of questions also allow the researcher to understand the diversity of an issue as the answers provided by the participants may be very different from one another. ▼ Table 5.1 Evaluating open and closed questions Closed questions Open questions Advantages Data is quantitative (answers can be categorised Data is qualitative, so it is rich and detailed, giving and counted) and can be analysed using measures researchers deeper insight than would be possible of central tendency and/or spread and displayed with quantitative, fixed-choice answers, visually using graphs and charts. Forced/fixed-choice rating scales do not allow participants to avoid answering questions. Disadvantages Limited choice reduces validity. A fixed range of Data can be harder to analyse than for closed answers mean participants cannot freely express their questions. As there may be a huge amount of data, opinions; their views may not fit with the fixed-choice analysis can be time-consuming. It can also be answers available. subjective as researchers summarise and report on key themes in the data; other researchers might interpret the data differently, making findings less reliable than quantitative data from closed questions. STUDY TIP When analysing data from a questionnaire, it is useful to remember that yes/no answers can be summarised by using the mode as a measure of central tendency. If you have a Likert scale, where people indicate their agreement on a numerical scale, you can use the mode or the median. If you want to try creating an online questionnaire, there are many free programs you can use to do so. What to avoid when creating questionnaires 1 Double-barrelled questions: these are questions where two things are asked in one question, such as: I think that students should have more exams and coursework. 1          2          3          4          5 Please circle the response which best fits your view: 1 = Completely disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Completely agree. It might be that the participant thinks that more coursework would be beneficial but does not want more exams. However, it is not possible for them to make this clear in their answer. 181 9781398353008.indb 181 08/07/22 11:19 AM  2 Ambiguous (unclear) questions: it is extremely important that participants can understand what the question is actually asking. If not, it will affect the validity of their 5 responses. Pilot studies are useful to ‘trial’ drafts of newly developed questionnaires. 3 Technical terms: avoid using technical language unless your target population will understand it. For example, if you were only going to be using doctors as your target population, it would be acceptable to use medical terminology, but not if your target population had no medical training. 4 Emotive language: you should avoid using words that are likely to offend or upset your participants for ethical reasons but also emotive language may be persuasive and lead participants to give an answer that they would not have given if the question was worded differently. 5 Research methodology STUDY TIP If you are creating a questionnaire, it is best to undertake a small pilot study on a few participants before distributing it to a larger number of people. This will help you to ensure that participants understand all of the questions and are able to answer as many as possible. If the pilot study highlights any problems, these can be resolved before collecting any further data. Evaluating questionnaires ▼ Table 5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires Advantages Disadvantages Relatively quick and easy to obtain the views Participants may be less willing to elaborate of a large number of participants; large fully on answers to open questions when sample size means results should be more writing, therefore limiting the depth of data representative, although this also depends on collected. the sampling technique (see page 199). Participants may be less likely to give socially Participants may still give socially desirable desirable answers than during interviews answers. These are answers that make because they are not answering face-to- them look good or acceptable within their face and their responses can be provided society but do not actually reflect their own anonymously. viewpoint. STUDY TIP Although researcher bias and subjectivity can be an issue in the analysis of qualitative data, it does not mean that all researchers will show researcher bias. When evaluating methods and studies, it is best to use words such as ‘could’ and ‘might’ to show that bias is a possibility rather than a certainty. Psychologist Hans Eysenck created a well-known personality test called the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). It includes nine questions to assess whether a participant is likely to have given socially desirable answers or not (the lie scale) (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1991). Anyone scoring five or above was probably lying. This allows researchers to tell if the participant is likely to be giving truthful answers about the rest of the personality questions. For example, one question on the EPI is ‘If you say you will do something do you always keep your promise, no matter how inconvenient it might be to do so?’ If the participant responds ‘yes’ to this question, it is likely that they are lying and giving a socially desirable answer as most people at some point break a promise. Do you think it is valid to assume that participants lied on other questions based on their answers to the lie scale questions? 182 9781398353008.indb 182 08/07/22 11:19 AM  Postal questionnaires Postal questionnaires refer to questionnaires that are posted out to the sample. For example, Lewin et al. (1992) used postal questionnaires to assess the psychological impact 5 of a rehabilitation programme for people who had had a heart attack (see page 617). The questionnaires measured anxiety and depression, general health and use of the health services. ▼ Table 5.3 Evaluating postal questionnaires Advantages Disadvantages 5.1 Research methods Relatively quick and easy to obtain the The return rate for postal questionnaires is quite views of a large number of participants; low due to the effort of posting them back; large sample size means results should participants may not have the motivation to do be more representative, although this this. Participants who do return the questionnaires also depends on the sampling technique may be unrepresentative of the target population – (see page 205). for example, they may be especially helpful, motivated or have a particular interest in the topic being studied. Can be posted anywhere in the world; It can be expensive to post large numbers of location is not an issue as it would be questionnaires, especially if return postage is with a face-to-face interview. included. LEARNING LINK Questionnaires can also be used to collect data as part of an experiment. For example, Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) used an eight-item questionnaire called the Demographic and Cartoon Watching Form to gather information from the parents of the children in the study (see page 70). This information included age, gender, primary language and ethnicity, whether they had any siblings and how much time they spent watching cartoons. Questionnaires like this can be helpful in providing key information that is required when making generalisations from the sample to the target population. Also, in experiments with matched-pairs designs, questionnaires may be useful to gather data to match the participants, as part of the initial screening. TEST YOURSELF 1 Suggest one advantage of asking open questions in questionnaires. 2 Suggest one disadvantage of using online questionnaires. 3 Baron Cohen et al.’s Eyes Test is a ‘pen and paper’ test. Suggest one strength of using this format. 4 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) used a questionnaire to find out more about the children in their study. State one closed question that they could have asked about children’s cartoon watching. 5 Lucca works with elephant handlers (mahouts) in Nepal. He is using a questionnaire to investigate the handlers’ attitudes towards training methods that focus on positive reinforcement. a Explain how one ethical guideline would be important for Lucca’s study. b Suggest two advantages of Lucca using a questionnaire to gather data for his study. 6 Carol creates a questionnaire including a series of fixed/forced-choice questions to measure helping behaviour in a variety of different situations. Identify two questions that Carol could include in her questionnaire. 183 9781398353008.indb 183 08/07/22 11:19 AM  5.1.5 Self-reports: interviews 5 KEY TERMS Think! structured interview What are the key features of a semi-structured interview? unstructured interview semi-structured Think! interview in-depth Imagine you are investigating unusual phobias (e.g. buttons, flowers). You are interested to know whether people can remember any traumatic events that might have become 5 Research methodology associated with their feared object. Why might an interview be more effective than a questionnaire for collecting data about this topic? Think! There are many factors that can affect the validity of the data obtained in an interview, from the experience and appearance of the interviewer to the location of the interview. What advice might you give to a researcher to ensure their interview data is valid? Interviews Interviews differ from questionnaires in that the researcher speaks directly to individual participants, asks them questions and records their responses. Interviews are generally done on smaller numbers of participants as they are far more time-consuming to conduct. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or by telephone. Just like questionnaires, interviewers can ask both open and closed questions. However, interviews are likely to have more open questions as people are often willing to speak in greater depth about a topic than they are to write about it in a questionnaire. ▼ Table 5.4 Types of interview Interview format Key features Structured interviews The researcher has a pre-determined, fixed list of questions; all participants are asked the same questions, in the same order. Unstructured The main topics are pre-determined. interviews There will be a research question that steers the direction of the interview; the interviewer does not follow a set list of questions. Questions are based on whatever the participant chooses to talk about. Semi-structured The researcher has a number of key questions that guide the interviews interview, but they can be asked in any order and the interviewer may introduce new questions based on what the participant says. The interviewer is also able to ask follow-up questions to clarify anything that the participant has said and to probe more deeply into interesting or unexpected areas. Some of the questions will be the same for each participant but not all. 184 9781398353008.indb 184 08/07/22 11:19 AM  Evaluating interviews ▼ Table 5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews 5 Advantages Disadvantages Interviews offer researchers a much greater opportunity to gather Participants may be more likely to give socially desirable rich, in-depth data from their participants. answers, due to speaking directly with the researcher and being afraid they will be judged. This would reduce the validity of the data collected. 5.1 Research methods Semi-structured or unstructured interviews allow researchers to Although semi-structured and unstructured interviews gain a good insight into the area that they are researching as they can offer a greater insight into what people think and are not constrained by set questions. They may discover thoughts feel about things because they are not constrained by set and ideas that they had not previously considered. questions, it makes them more at risk of researcher bias. Face-to-face interviews allow researchers to gather information Face-to-face interviews may be impractical for people about non-verbal communication (e.g. gesture, posture, facial who live in remote areas and/or have limited mobility or expression); this can increase the validity of the findings as this transport. Furthermore, people may feel uncomfortable data may provide cues about the person’s emotional state and how being interviewed face-to-face about sensitive topics or comfortable they are with the interview. in unfamiliar environments and may prefer a telephone or video call. An advantage of telephone interviews is that they provide a A disadvantage of telephone interviews is that some quicker and more cost-effective way of gathering in-depth participants may not feel comfortable speaking over the information than face-to-face interviews. This is because the phone and may be less willing to speak in-depth. Another interviewers do not have to travel to meet the participants (or the disadvantage is that because the researcher cannot see the other way round), saving both time and money. This might allow participants, they cannot use non-verbal signals to help them to gather a larger sample than if they were doing face-to- them engage with the participant and get them to feel face interviews. comfortable about talking to them. STUDY TIP While participants may be more likely to give socially desirable answers in face-to-face, or even phone, interviews due to a fear of being judged, one may also argue the opposite. The pressure of speaking to another person may prevent a participant from feeling able to lie. The topic of the interview may affect participants’ potential honesty levels, and socially sensitive topics such as mental health, race or gender may be more prone to social desirability. TEST YOURSELF 1 Describe one similarity and one difference between a semi-structured interview and an unstructured interview. 2 Identify three ways that an interview differs from a questionnaire. 3 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) interviewed their participants after showing them videos including either human faces or cartoon characters. Outline the interview format used in this study. 4 Milgram (obedience) interviewed his participants to find out more about why the majority of them obeyed. Suggest one reason why the answers that the participants gave may not have been valid. 5 Tilly is planning to interview a group of parents about their attitudes towards aggression in children. a Suggest one open question that Tilly could use to collect data about people’s attitudes towards aggressive behaviour in children. b Suggest one strength of using open questions to collect data in Tilly’s study. 6 Tai and Vinh are planning to use structured interviews to ask passengers in two busy airports about their attitudes towards personal space. a State which type of interview Tai and Vinh should use to collect data in their study. b Suggest one strength of using the type of interview you suggested in part a, in this study. 185 9781398353008.indb 185 08/07/22 11:19 AM  Psychometric tests 5 The word psychometric literally means ‘measuring the mind’. Psychometric tests are carefully designed to provide valid and reliable measures of individual differences between people relating to personality, aptitude, knowledge or skills. The tests are standardised on large random samples in order to establish norms or average scores. This means that an individual’s scores can be compared to the norm to reveal whether they score higher or lower than average, and if so, how much higher or lower than other people who are comparable to them (e.g. the same age). Floor and ceiling effects 5 Research methodology If tested on a large enough random sample, a valid psychometric test will provide scores which range from very low to very high. Most people should score somewhere in the middle. This is called a normal distribution. Some tests do not differentiate between people very well – for example, the range of scores is low. If the majority of the scores are very high, we get a ceiling effect – people are unable to achieve any higher (they are bumping their heads on the ceiling!). Alternatively, if everyone receives a very low score, this is called a floor effect. Again, the test is not valid as it does not allow us to rank the participants from those with the highest scores to those with the lowest scores. An intelligence or IQ test, for example, must not be too hard (to avoid floor effects) or too easy (to avoid ceiling effects). In a clinical setting, researchers must also ensure that the tests cover a range of scores – for example, a test of depression must be able to show scores from not depressed at all to severely depressed. ▼ Table 5.6 Evaluating psychometric tests Advantages Disadvantages Psychometric tests are objective as the Participants may respond to demand tests produce numerical data, which does characteristics and answer in a way they think not require the subjective interpretation of is expected of them, reducing the validity of psychologists. the data collected. Psychometric tests are a fast, cost-effective If a participant feels under stress, it may way of shortlisting job applicants before affect how they respond on a psychometric interviewing, which may allow employers to test, meaning that it is less likely to be valid recruit more suitable candidates. or reliable (if they were tested again, when less stressed, they may respond differently). LEARNING LINK Whichever options you are studying, you will find psychological research using psychometric tests in all the applied areas, including Clinical, Consumer, Health and Organisational Psychology. For example, a visual analogue scale (VAS) is a psychometric scale for measuring attitudes, feelings or characteristics that cannot be directly measured, like subjective perception of pain, along a continuum of values (see example in Figure 5.8). Can you think of any reason why a scale like this might not provide valid data? Do you think there are any groups of people in particular that might not understand this scale very well? What implications might this have? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Nagging, Worst possible, Distressing, Intense, Mild, annoying uncomfortable, unbearable, No pain miserable dreadful, pain troublesome excruciating pain horrible pain pain pain ▲ Figure 5.8 An example of a visual analogue scale for measuring pain 186 9781398353008.indb 186 08/07/22 11:19 AM  STUDY TIP Many of the evaluation points for questionnaires and fixed/forced-choice questions may be relevant here. It is important though to consider the purpose of psychometric tests and 5 how they might be used to avoid general evaluations of these. Psychometric tests can be used in different contexts, so always consider what the data will be used for. TEST YOURSELF 5.1 Research methods 1 Explain what is meant by a psychometric test. 2 Give two strengths of using psychometric tests to collect data. 3 Minh would like to use a visual analogue scale to measure people’s overall level of happiness. Suggest one disadvantage of psychometric tests in this study. 4 Dr Siraj is investigating a case study of a girl who has a phobia of flowers. Explain how Dr Siraj might use a psychometric test to obtain data about the girl’s phobia. 5 Harper is investigating whether there is a correlation between stress and illness. He uses a psychometric test to measure stress. Suggest one strength and one weakness of investigating stress using a psychometric test. You must refer to Harper’s investigation in your answer. 6 Xanthe has designed a new psychometric test to measure leadership qualities. Her supervisor suggests that an observation may be a better way of assessing leadership qualities. Give one similarity and one difference between psychometric tests and observations. 5.1.6 Case studies KEY TERMS Think! triangulation What is meant by triangulation? Why is this a strength of case studies? case study unit Think! Imagine you are conducting a case study on a female child with a sex hormone imbalance. She lives with her dad and her older brother. You are interested to see whether her cognitive and social development are affected by this biological difference. You visit her every month from the age of two years old to seven years old. Can you think of any problems that might affect the objectivity and generalisability of your data? Think! Compared with other research methods, can you think of any reasons why it might be difficult to maintain a person’s confidentiality following the publication of a case study and therefore why fully informed, valid consent is so important? Saavedra and Silverman focused on one different methods as triangulation is a key nine-year-old boy as the ‘unit of study’ but feature of a case study. the unit can be more than one person. In Figure 5.9, we see one family, at one specific refugee camp. A case study might investigate factors affecting one individual in this family, the whole family or it could even focus on the whole camp as the unit of study, looking at factors that are specific to this particular camp. What data-collecting techniques might you like to use in a case study investigating factors affecting anxiety in refugees? Remember you need at least two ▲ Figure 5.9 187 9781398353008.indb 187 08/07/22 11:19 AM  Case studies are detailed investigations of individual people or small groups (units) of people, such as people from the same family or a single shop or health clinic. They tend to 5 be used to study unusual or rare cases. For example, in the Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) study, a nine-year-old Hispanic-American boy’s unusual phobia was investigated. A key feature of the case study as a research method is that data is gathered using a number of different techniques, such as interviews, observations and psychometric tests. This is known as triangulation. Data is often gathered over an extended period of time; therefore, most case studies are also longitudinal studies. The data gathered may be a combination of both qualitative and quantitative data. As well as gathering information from the participants themselves, information may also be gathered from family, friends, school 5 Research methodology records, psychiatric records, the workplace or any other relevant sources of information. When psychologists write up case studies for publication, they often begin with a case history, which provides rich and detailed background information, which often helps to put current behaviour into context. ▼ Table 5.7 Advantages and disadvantages of case studies Evaluating case studies Advantages Disadvantages Researchers can gather rich and detailed information about For case studies, the researchers often work very closely with an individual or small group of individuals. This gives them a a participant, usually over an extended period of time, so unique insight into their participants’ lives in order to gain a they get to know the participant very well. This could result good understanding of whatever aspect of behaviour they are in the researcher being less objective when analysing the data studying. because they may be influenced by how they feel about the participant, reducing the validity of the research. As case studies use more than one method of gathering It is very hard to replicate a case study, simply because it is information, researchers can triangulate the data to ensure its a detailed analysis of one unique individual, or a small group validity. of individuals. It might be that their specific experience leads them to act in a certain way that is not representative of others, meaning that findings may not be generalisable to others. Case study evidence is sometimes criticised for being unreliable because it can be hard to replicate. However, some case studies include quantitative data collected using standardised procedures and/or psychometric tests. These measures can be checked for reliability. Can you think of any ways of checking the reliability of qualitative data, from interviews, for example? LEARNING LINK Saavedra and Silverman’s case study (button phobia) (see page 114) collected both qualitative and quantitative data using a variety of methods, such as structured interview, observation and the use of a psychometric scale to measure subjective distress. The study was longitudinal as the boy’s behaviour was studied before, during and after treatment and he also attended follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months after treatment. How might the researchers redesign the study to increase generalisability? STUDY TIP While case studies only focus on one, or a small group of, unique individual(s), making it difficult to generalise from the findings, it is important to consider the significance of the topic being investigated. Consider whether the participant/s of the case study is/are truly unique, or representative of a certain group of individuals. While the nine-year-old boy in the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) had a rare phobia of buttons, the researchers aimed to establish an effective treatment for disgust-based phobias, which could be more widely applied to others. 188 9781398353008.indb 188 08/07/22 11:19 AM  TEST YOURSELF 1 Suggest one strength and one weakness of using a case study. 5 2 Outline what is meant by ‘longitudinal’ with reference to case studies. 3 Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) used a case study to investigate a nine- year-old boy’s phobia of buttons. Suggest two reasons why the case study method was used in this study. 4 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) conducted experiments and a correlation into sleep and dreams. Alternatively, they could have conducted a case study. 5.1 Research methods Outline two ways that data could have been collected in this case study. 5 Zeph has written up a case study about his work with a student called Myles. Myles has autism spectrum disorder and Zeph has been providing him with training sessions to improve his social sensitivity. Zeph’s supervisor says that his case study is too subjective. a Explain what is meant by ‘subjectivity’ using Zeph’s case study of Myles as an example. b Outline one way that Zeph could try to reduce the subjectivity in his case study. 6 Ruby is training to be a carer. Her client, Indie, has brain damage that is affecting his sleep. She decides to write up a case study so that other carers can learn about her work with Indie. a Outline how Ruby might collect quantitative and qualitative data as part of her case study about Indie. b Explain one advantage of Ruby using the case study method to collect data about Indie. 5.1.7 Observation KEY TERMS Think! behavioural checklist Behavioural checklists are an important feature of which type of observation? observation participant observation Think! overt observation non-participant Imagine you are conducting a participant observation at a hairdressing salon. You are observation interested in the ways clients interact with each other and with their stylist. How would you record your data? Can you think of any problems with collecting data in this way? structured observation covert observation unstructured observation Think! naturalistic observation Which type of observation do you think is better: overt, non-participant or structured controlled observation observation? Hassett et al.’s study was an experiment as the researchers predicted that toy preference (wheeled versus plush = the dependent variable) depended on the monkeys’ biological sex (males versus female = the independent variable). The data, however, was collected using observation. The researchers used a carefully operationalised behavioural checklist to code the monkeys’ interactions with the toys. What were the ▲ Figure 5.10 As predicted by Hassett four features of this observation? et al. (monkey toy preferences; see page 15), this female monkey is investigating a plush toy 189 9781398353008.indb 189 08/07/22 11:20 AM  Observational research involves watching people’s behaviour and recording it. Researchers may observe either human or non-human animal behaviour. There are four different features 5 of observation, each with two alternatives. Overt and covert In an overt observation, participants know that they are being observed. For example, a researcher might be observing behaviour in the playground and the teacher has told the children that the researcher is there to see how they play. In a covert observation, participants do not know that they are being observed. This could mean 5 Research methodology that the researcher is standing far enough away from the participants that he/she cannot be seen. Participant and non-participant In a participant observation, the researcher(s) join the group of participants that they want to observe in order to gain a greater understanding of the group. There are no examples of participant observation at Cambridge International AS Level, but an interesting example was conducted by Festinger et al. (1956). Leon Festinger joined a cult called The Seekers, who believed that a flood would cause the world to end on 21 December 1954, but that true believers would be rescued by aliens from another planet. Festinger wanted to observe cult members first-hand so he and other researchers joined the cult, attended group meetings at the leader’s house and even lived in the house for a short time. This was an interesting study that investigated the role of groups and social context, and is therefore part of the social approach. This is an example of a covert participant observation but participant observations can also be overt. In a non-participant observation, the researcher will observe from a distance (either covertly or overtly) but will not become part of the group that they are observing and will not interact with the participants. Structured and unstructured With structured observations, researchers record a pre-determined, limited number of behaviours, using a behavioural checklist. Each behaviour is tightly defined (operationalised) to avoid ambiguity, and researchers keep a tally (count) of the number of times each behaviour is observed. Observers can be trained in how to observe the behavioural categories, which increases both the validity (ensuring they are scoring the correct behaviours) and reliability (ensuring that they are able to identify and score the behaviours each time they occur). In unstructured observations, the researcher records all behaviour that is relevant to the aim of the research without using pre-determined behavioural categories. Often the data is qualitative as, instead of recording tallies on a checklist, the researcher writes notes or speaks into a voice recorder. Naturalistic and controlled In a naturalistic observation, the researchers observe participants (including non-human animals) in uncontrolled, real-world settings. Researchers do not interfere in any way; they simply observe behaviour within the setting. Controlled observations generally take place in laboratory settings where it is possible to standardise the situation for every participant. ▼ Table 5.8 Advantages and disadvantages of observations Evaluating observations Advantages Disadvantages Structured observations are more reliable than unstructured Observations can also be subject to observer bias as they rely observations as the behaviours that are to be recorded are decided on the observer’s own judgement as to what behaviour to in advance and operationalised. This means that the behaviour record and are therefore subjective. that is being observed will be broken down in components that can be easily identified and recorded. This ensures that different observers are more likely to record data consistently. 190 9781398353008.indb 190 08/07/22 11:20 AM  Advantages Disadvantages Unstructured observations can be used as part of a pilot study to give researchers a good understanding and overview of the In unstructured observations, it can be difficult to record all behaviour and some of the subtler (but interesting) behaviours 5 range of behaviours that they might observe. The researchers might be missed. would then choose a limited number of these to observe for their main research. An advantage of overt observations is that it is more ethical A disadvantage of overt observations is that participants because participants know they are being observed so it may show demand characteristics because they know they are avoids having to deceive participants. being watched and therefore may not act in a natural way 5.1 Research methods An advantage of covert observations is that it avoids any A disadvantage of covert observations is that they are less potential demand characteristics because the participants do ethical than overt observations because participants do not not know they are being observed. know they are being observed and studied. An advantage of participant observations is that the observer A disadvantage of participant observations is that the is not viewing from a distance and therefore may gain a observer may become too involved with the people that they greater understanding of the participants’ behaviour. are observing, and become less objective in their observations. An advantage of non-participant observations is that the A disadvantage of non-participant observations is that observer is likely to be more objective in their observations as because the observer is watching from a distance some they are not personally getting involved in the study. behaviours may be missed. An advantage of naturalistic observations is that behaviour is A disadvantage of naturalistic observations is that it is likely to be normal as the participants are in their own natural much harder to control for variables that might affect the settings and the researchers do not interfere in any way. participants’ behaviour. Therefore it is likely to be high in ecological validity. An advantage of controlled observations is that they can be A disadvantage of controlled observations is that behaviour more easily replicated by other researchers as they can use may be less natural if participants are aware that they are in a the same behaviour schedule and it is easier to standardise controlled setting. Researchers might also miss key behaviours the situation for all participants. This makes controlled if they have a very rigid behaviour schedule. observations more reliable. The children in Figure 5.11 have been told that the researcher will be present at lunchtimes this week, although they have not been told exactly what she is researching. She keeps her distance and does not interact with the children or the play-time supervisors. » What are the four features of this observation? » How could each feature be changed and ▲ Figure 5.11 These children are being what impact would this have on the observed by a psychologist who is validity and reliability of the data? recording acts of physical and verbal » How can the psychologist ensure aggression, using a behavioural ethical guidelines are followed in this checklist observation? LEARNING LINK In Fagen et al. (elephant learning), researchers observed whether elephants could be taught to complete a trunk wash. It was a structured observation, as the researchers were observing the elephants’ training sessions using a carefully operationalised behavioural checklist. Imagine you are observing elephants in the wild and want to investigate interactions between family groups. Would your observation be naturalistic or controlled? Would you choose to use a structured or unstructured observation and why? 191 9781398353008.indb 191 08/07/22 11:20 AM  STUDY TIP 5 Observation can be used to gather data as part of a laboratory experiment (e.g. Bandura et al., aggression) or a field experiment (e.g. Piliavin et al., subway Samaritans). It could also be used in a case study (e.g. Saavedra and Silverman, button phobia). In all of these studies, observation was used to gather the data but was not the primary research method. When observation is the primary research method, researchers simply watch a group of humans or animals and record what they see, sometimes classifying or categorising individuals, but not comparing pre-existing groups. Fagen et al. (elephant learning) is the only study at Cambridge International AS Level where observation is the primary research method. 5 Research methodology TEST YOURSELF 1 Explain one similarity and one difference between naturalistic observation and controlled observation. 2 Explain two weaknesses of participant observation. 3 Explain what is meant by a ‘structured observation’ using the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) as an example. 4 Bandura et al. (aggression) used a covert observation to study children’s imitation of aggression. Suggest one strength of using a covert observation in this study. 5 McKenzie is interested in the effect of culture on personal space. She decides to conduct a naturalistic observation while she is on holiday, in a city that she has not visited before. a Describe how McKenzie could conduct her naturalistic observation. b Suggest one disadvantage of McKenzie using a naturalistic observation to collect her data. 6 Dmitri wants to investigate people’s behaviour when in their cars. He decides to conduct a structured observation of drivers at a local car park during a busy time when there are not many parking spaces. a Describe what is meant by a structured observation, using Dmitri’s study as an example. b Explain one ethical issue that Dmitri would have to consider. 5.1.8 Correlations KEY TERMS Think! correlation (positive and What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment? negative) operational definition co-variables Think! causality Imagine you are conducting a study on the correlation between empathy and preferred correlation coefficient personal space when interacting with close friends. How will you operationalise your co-variables? Think! Correlational studies are often criticised as it is not possible to infer causality – it is unclear which variable has caused the change in the other and whether some other variable may have caused the changes in the two that have been measured. Imagine a researcher finds a positive correlation between the number of hours a person meditates per week and the number of items they are able to recall on a memory test. She concludes that meditation improves memory. Can you think of a third variable that might cause both time spent meditating and better memory? 192 9781398353008.indb 192 08/07/22 11:20 AM  Do you think time spent on video games improves reaction speed or do people with good reaction speeds play more video games? Think back to Dr Rox’s study about the effects of caffeine on reaction time (see 5 page 170). The research method was an experiment as Dr Rox manipulated whether the participants drank coffee or water before taking the reaction time test. She now wants to conduct a correlational study on another variable that may or may not be related to reaction time. She decides to investigate the relationship between time spent playing video games each week and reaction speed. » Do you think she will predict a positive or a negative correlation? How would this 5.1 Research methods correlation look on a scatter graph? » How could she measure time spent on video games in a way that is valid, reliable and ethical? » Why is Dr Rox unable to conclude that playing video games improves reaction speed? Correlational studies look at the relationship between two variables. These are called co- variables. For each participant, researchers will gather two sets of data which they can plot on a scatter graph to see whether there is a correlation between the two measures. Operational definitions for co-variables Just as it is important to operationalise your IV and DV in an experiment, it is also important to operationalise your co-variables in a correlation. This means stating exactly what they are and how they will be measured. For example, Co-variable 1: average time spent playing video games per week, measured in hours. co-variable 2: reaction speed on an app measured in minutes, seconds and milliseconds. It is always important to operationalise your hypotheses for correlations. Correlations are often used by researchers to investigate new areas of psychology before conducting experimental research, or in cases where it is not practical or ethical to manipulate variables. Various methods may be used to collect data for correlations, as long as the data is quantitative. In order to analyse the data, the pairs of scores are plotted against one another on a scatter graph (see Figure 5.12) to see whether there is a correlation or not. A scatter graph is a helpful way of quickly seeing whether two variables appear to be correlated or not. It should also be possible to infer the direction and strength of the relationship. Positive, negative and no correlation When there is a positive correlation, the two variables being measured increase together – as one value increases so does the other. For example, in Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), the longer the duration of REM sleep (in minutes) the more words participants used to describe their dream. When there is a negative correlation, as one value increases, the other decreases. In Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), the higher the Eyes Test score the lower the Autism Spectrum Quotient score. Sometimes there is no consistent relationship between the scores. In Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans), there was no correlation between time spent on mindfulness activities between the weekly MBSR sessions and grey matter concentration. Figure 5.12 shows how each of these outcomes might look on a scatter graph. Positive correlation Negative correlation No correlation ▲ Figure 5.12 Types of correlation on scatter graphs 193 9781398353008.indb 193 08/07/22 11:20 AM  The strength of the relationship between the two variables can be represented by a correlation coefficient. In general, the closer to 1 (for a positive correlation) or –1 5 (for a negative correlation) that the coefficient is, the stronger the correlation is. A correlation of +0.75/–0.75 is considered to be a ‘strong correlation’. This means that the two variables being studied are very strongly related. Evaluating correlations ▼ Table 5.9 Advantages and disadvantages of correlations 5 Research methodology Advantages Disadvantages Correlations allow psychologists to Correlations can only show the strength of the investigate new areas of research to see relationship between two variables and cause whether they are worth investigating further and effect cannot be inferred. They also do with experimental methods. not tell us why that relationship has occurred. Correlations allow researchers to investigate The presence of a third variable cannot be areas where it is not practical or ethical to ruled out in correlations. A third variable that manipulate variables. is not being measured may have influenced the relationship. LEARNING LINK Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) (see page 60) found a negative (inverse) correlation between performance on the Revised Eyes Test (where participants have to look at photographs of people’s eyes and decide which word best describes the mood of the person in the photo) and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (a self-report questionnaire where a high score indicates responses consistent with traits of autism). The correlation was –0.53. What does this tell us about the relationship between the Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Eyes Test? STUDY TIP It is important to remember that a correlation is not an experiment. It is critical to refer to your two variables as ‘co-variables’ when planning a correlational study. There is no independent or dependent variable in a correlation. TEST YOURSELF 1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘lack of causality’ as a disadvantage of correlations in psychological research. 2 Outline what is meant if a study says that there was ‘no correlation’. 3 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) found a positive correlation between length of REM and number of words in a dream report. Explain what is meant by the term ‘positive correlation’, using this study as an example. 4 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) used both experiments and correlations in their research. State one similarity and one difference between experiments and correlations using examples from this study. 5 Trixie found a correlation between aggressive playground behaviour (scored using a structured observation, where the higher the score, the more aggressive the child) and amount of time spent playing violent video games. Explain why Trixie cannot conclude that playing violent games causes childhood aggression. 6 Rebecca finds a negative correlation between empathy (measured on a self-report questionnaire, where the higher the score, the more empathetic the person) and time taken to offer help to a confederate in a staged emergency situation (in seconds). a Explain what the term ‘negative correlation’ means, using an example from Rebecca’s study. b Suggest one weakness of Rebecca using a correlation in her study. 194 9781398353008.indb 194 08/07/22 11:20 AM  5.1.9 Longitudinal studies KEY TERMS Think! 5 longitudinal study What is the difference between a longitudinal study and an experiment with experiment with longitudinal design? longitudinal design cohort effects follow-up Think! cross-sectional Imagine you are a participant in a longitudinal study about the effects of the pandemic 5.1 Research methods attrition on loneliness. You have recently started seeing your friends much more and do not really have time to fit the sessions in any more. You decide to drop out. What type of people do you think might be left in the psychologist’s sample at the end of the study? How might this affect her findings? Think! Longitudinal studies can take place over many years – for example, following the development of a group of people growing up after the Second World War. Can you think of any potential problems with generalisability of findings from such studies and why they might not apply to children growing up following other conflicts? A useful term here is cohort effects, which means that the group of people being studied may not be like similar groups growing up in other time periods. Longitudinal research involves following the same group of individuals over an extended period of time (sometimes years) and giving them tests or tasks at various intervals during that time to see how they change and develop in their thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour. Participants of longitudinal designs need to be re-contacted over time for repeated testing. This testing needs to be standardised for valid and reliable comparisons to be made between participants’ scores over time. Longitudinal studies use a variety of techniques to gather data, from psychometric testing to interviews and questionnaires. Experiments can also use a longitudinal design where the experimental group is given an intervention (such as a wellbeing programme, an educational intervention or a dietary supplement) and compared over time to a control group that is not given the intervention. Follow-up sessions allow psychologists to measure the long-term impact of treatments and interventions on the participants. Evaluating longitudinal studies ▼ Table 5.10 Advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies Advantages Disadvantages Longitudinal studies have an advantage over cross-sectional Due to the long-term nature of the research, it is more studies, where sub-samples from within a population are prone to attrition. Attrition is where participants drop out simultaneously tested and compared (such as testing cognitive of the research, either because they move away and lose differences in six-year-old, seven-year-old and eight-year-old contact with the researchers, they decide they no longer children). Because longitudinal studies are following the same wish to take part or their life circumstances change. group of participants as they change and develop over time, researchers do not have the issue of participant variables where any changes found may be due to differences between participants, such as in schooling or home life. Longitudinal studies allow some topics to be studied which might By the time longitudinal research is completed, it may not be possible using other research methods, such as child no longer be generalisable due to changes in society development over time. (depending on the focus of the research). This means it may lack temporal validity (see page 214). An advantage of experiments with longitudinal designs is that A disadvantage of experiments with longitudinal designs they avoid participant effects by following the same group of is that they can have issues of attrition where participants participants over an extended period of time. drop out from the study for a number of reasons such as no longer wishing to take part. 195 9781398353008.indb 195 08/07/22 11:20 AM  Lots of people had left Miss Steps dance 5 class. Why do you think that might be? What does this example tell you about attrition in longitudinal studies?  Figure 5.13 Posy was pleased with her progress, but was Miss Steps, the teacher, really all that good? 5 Research methodology LEARNING LINK Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) was an experiment with a longitudinal design into the effects of mindfulness on the brain, as data was collected over an eight-week period. All participants provided two sets of data, once at the beginning and once at the end of the eight-week period. STUDY TIP Longitudinal designs can be a research method in their own right or they can be part of an experiment with a longitudinal design, for example. An experiment with a longitudinal design will have independent and dependent variables, with the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable being measured over time, whereas a longitudinal study will not have an independent variable and will just involve repeatedly gathering data from the participants over several weeks, months or even years. TEST YOURSELF 1 Give one strength of experiments with longitudinal designs. 2 Explain one disadvantage of longitudinal studies relating to validity. 3 The study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) was an experiment with a longitudinal design. Outline what is meant by a ‘longitudinal design’, using this study as an example. 4 Explain one reason why a psychologist might conduct a longitudinal study. Use an example from Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) in your answer. 5 Rick and his puppy, Basil, have been attending Dr Barker’s puppy training classes every week for six months. Basil has done brilliantly and is now much more obedient and Rick cannot thank Dr Barker enough. At the end of the programme, many of the original puppies and owners have dropped out. Outline one reason why Rick should be cautious when making generalisations about the effectiveness of Dr Barker’s classes. 6 Shawna has a son who has been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. She and her son are part of a longitudinal study tracking children’s social and emotional development. Shawna sometimes feels sad after the monthly assessments as her son is not making very good progress. She also has four other children and struggles to find the time to attend. Explain two ethical guidelines that must be considered when conducting longitudinal studies. You must refer to Shawna in your answer. 196 9781398353008.indb 196 08/07/22 11:20 AM  5.2 Methodological concepts 5.2.1 Aims, hypotheses and variables 5 KEY TERMS Think! hypothesis (directional/ How is a directional hypothesis different to a non-directional hypothesis? one-tailed, non- directional/two-tailed, null and alternative) Think! 5.2 Methodological concepts operationalisation Do you have any teachers who gesture a great deal with their hands while they are independent variable teaching? Research suggests that using hand gestures can actually help students to draw dependent variable logical conclusions from new information (Pilegard and Fiorella, 2021). Can you write a aim non-directional hypothesis that could be used to test this idea in your school? operational definition correlational Think! Why do you think psychologists are so concerned about operationalising their variab