Research Method-1.docx

**IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH** **PRELIMINARY PAGES** Preliminary pages, just as in literary books, are those pages that precede the actual text of the book. They serve as a prelude to the core narrative or informational content within the book, playing a crucial role in providing essential...

**IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH** **PRELIMINARY PAGES** Preliminary pages, just as in literary books, are those pages that precede the actual text of the book. They serve as a prelude to the core narrative or informational content within the book, playing a crucial role in providing essential information, context and structure for the reader. Additionally, they may express gratitude, set the tone with an epigraph, and offer guidance through a table of contents. The foreword or preface may provide insights into the book's background or purpose. Altogether, the preliminary pages contribute to the overall reader experience, enhancing comprehension and engagement with the main content of the book. **COVER PAGE / TITLE PAGE** The **title page** or cover page of a [book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book), [thesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesis) or other written work is the page at or near the front which displays its [title](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_(publishing)), subtitle, author, publisher, and edition, often artistically decorated. The title page often shows the title of the work, the person or body responsible for its intellectual content, and the imprint, which contains the name and address of the book\'s publisher and its date of publication. In the case of a research project or thesis/dissertation, the name of the institution awarding such degree should be fully stated alongside the year the degree was awarded. **DECLARATION PAGE** In this page, the author or student basically state that he/she did the research and it is void of plagiarism. The Page should contain the name and signatures of the student. **CERTIFICATION PAGE** This page is similar to the declaration page. You basically state that you did the research and it is void of plagiarism. The information of the institution the research is submitted to, is contained in the certification page. The Page should also contain the names and signatures of your supervisor, head of department (H.O.D), and external examiner. **DEDICATION** The dedication is an optional page that gives the author the opportunity to dedicate the manuscript to an individual or group. **ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS** The acknowledgements (or acknowledgments) page is an optional page that gives the author the opportunity to thank those who have provided help during the research and writing of a thesis or dissertation. **TABLE OF CONTENTS** The table of contents includes chapter headings, subdivisions of chapters, and all other parts of the thesis or dissertation listed exactly as they appear in the text along with the starting page number. **LIST OF FIGURES** The illustrations page includes illustration or figure titles and page numbers. **LIST OF TABLES** The table page includes table titles and page numbers. **APPENDICES** The appendix or appendices include reference materials such as tables, figures, charts, illustrations, abbreviations, and other addenda not placed in the text. **ABSTRACT** The abstract should briefly state the problem, describe the procedure or methods used, and summarize the conclusions reached in the thesis or dissertation. The length of the abstract for a thesis should not exceed 250 words and for a dissertation it should not exceed 350 words. **\ ** **BODY OF A RESEARCH / PROJECT** **INTRODUCTION** Introduction provides the main information on problem statements, the indication of methodology, important findings, and principal conclusion. Basically, this section of a research paper covers rationales behind the work or background research, explanation of the importance, defending its relevance, a brief description of experimental designs, defined research questions, hypotheses, or key aspects. Introduction should set the initial tone for research paper. Introduction should provide background information about the topic of research, reasons why present study is being carried out based on significant research gaps, research objectives and research questions, scope of research, uniqueness and novelty of study and last paragraph of introduction should be on organization of complete paper. Length of introduction should not exceed one fifth of total size of the research paper.  **LITERATURE REVIEW** Literature Review is needed for the analysis of past studies or scholarly articles to be familiar with research questions or topics. Hence, this section summarizes and synthesizes arguments and ideas from scholarly sources without adding new contributions. In turn, this part is organized around arguments or ideas, not sources. Purpose of literature review is to synthesize prior research related to topic of the paper. Based on previous studies, authors should try to identify research gaps to prove uniqueness of the study. Most of the researchers make mistake in this part, as problem of study is not identified based on research gaps and papers get desk rejected by editors.  Authors should prefer to refer latest research papers at least for ten years. If authors are targeting to a particular journal, it should be ensured that no paper from that journal in identified research area is left for review. **MATERIALS AND METHODS** Materials and Methods covers explanations of research designs. Basically, techniques for gathering information and other aspects related to experiments must be described in a research paper. For instance, students and scholars document all specialized materials and general procedures. In this case, individuals may use some or all of the methods in further studies or judge the scientific merit of the work. Moreover, scientists should explain how they are going to conduct their experiments. It should be well-written, clear, and logically organized. It should be tied up with research objectives of the paper. There may be different kind of research methods such as case study based, empirical studies or modelling based. Authors should clearly justify use of specific methodology. It is also desirable that different steps of research methodology are given in form of a flow chart. **RESULTS** Results mean the gained information or data after the research or experiment. Basically, scholars should present and illustrate their findings. Moreover, this section may include tables or figures. Results section should clearly describe all findings in sequential manner.  As far as possible findings should be presented in the form of tables and figures without any repetition. Authors should describe the results honestly without distortion of the data. **DISCUSSION** Discussion is a section of a research paper where scientists review the information in the introduction part, evaluate gained results, or compare it with past studies. In particular, students and scholars interpret gained data or findings in appropriate depth. For example, if results differ from expectations at the beginning, scientists should explain why that may have happened. However, if results agree with rationales, scientists should describe theories that the evidence is supported. After results section, discussion of findings is done. Findings should be interpreted in context to research questions mentioned in the paper. Findings should be also compared with previous studies done in the same area. **CONCLUSION** Conclusion includes final claims of a research paper based on findings. Basically, this section covers final thoughts and the summary of the whole work. Moreover, this section may be used instead of limitations and recommendations that would be too small by themselves. In this case, scientists do not need to use headings for recommendations and limitations. **RECOMMENDATIONS** Recommendations take its roots from a discussion section where scholars propose potential solutions or new ideas based on obtained results in a research paper. In this case, if scientists have any recommendations on how to improve this research so that other scholars can use evidence in further studies, they must write what they think in this section. Limitations mean a consideration of research weaknesses and results to get new directions. For instance, if researchers found any limitations of studies that could affect experiments, scholars must not use such knowledge because of the same mistakes. Moreover, scientists should avoid contradicting results, and, even more, they must write it in this section. **REFERENCES** References mean a section where students, scholars, or scientists provide all used sources by following the format and academic rules. **APPENDIX** Appendix may take different forms from paragraphs to charts. In this section, scholars include additional information on a research paper. **TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION** A researcher requires many data -- gathering tools or techniques. Tests are the tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in data collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the collection of certain type of information. One has to select from the available tools those which will provide data he seeks for testing hypothesis. It may happen that existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so researcher should modify them or construct his own. Different tools used for data collection may be; 1\. Questionnaires 2\. Interviews 3\. Schedules 4\. Observation Techniques 5\. Rating Scales **1. Questionnaire:** It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as; "A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired." "In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself." The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices.It is easy to prepare and to administer. The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular reason to see them personally. **Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:** 1\. It deals with an important or significant topic. 2\. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter. 3\. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports and records. 4\. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data. 5\. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed. 6\. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified. 7\. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions. 8\. Questions are presented in an order from simple to complex. 9\. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided. 10\. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided. 11\. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives. 12\. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret. **Merits of Questionnaire Method:** 1\. it's very economical. 2\. It's a time saving process. 3\. It covers the research in wide area. 4\. It's very suitable for special type of responses. 5\. It is most reliable in special cases. **Demerits of Questionnaire Method:** 1\. Through this we get only limited responses. 2\. Lack of personal contact. 3\. Greater possibility of wrong answers. 4\. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more. 5\. Sometimes answers may be illegible. 6\. It may be useless in many problems. **The Interview:** Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information. "Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction." "The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned." "The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger." In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their respective impression upon each other. The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment supervenes between them. In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the 'depth' of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his truthfulness of responses. **Characteristics of an Interview:** 1\. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, discover the origin of problem. 2\. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person. 3\. It can make cross questioning possible. 4\. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned. 5\. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics. 6\. It has flexibility. 7\. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged through cross questioning. 8\. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer. 9\. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies. **Merits of Interview:** 1\. Direct research. 2\. Deep research 3\. Knowledge of past and future. 4\. Knowledge of special features. 5\. Mutual encouragement is ossible. 6\. Supra-observation is possible. 7\. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes. 8\. Examination of known data. **Disadvantage of Interview:** 1\. May provides misleading information. 2\. Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced) 3\. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer. 4\. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interviewee and interviewer. 5\. One sided and incomplete research. 6\. Art rather than science. **Schedule:** When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as schedule. "Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another." By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly. The schedule is nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test the hypothesis." Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis. In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role. As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed. Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has not any great significance. **Important Features of Schedule:** 1\. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are noted down by him. 2\. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be attractive. 3\. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research. 4\. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements essential to the analysis. 5\. It aims at delimiting the subject. 6\. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing the questions. Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory. **Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule**; 1\. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions. 2\. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked. 3\. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions. 4\. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic. 5\. Questions be suitable to respondent's intelligence level. 6\. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in schedule. **Merits of Schedule:** 1\. Higher percentage of responses. 2\. Possible to observe personality factors. 3\. Through interview personal contact is possible. 4\. It is possible to give human touch to schedule. 5\. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there. 6\. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee. **Observation Technique:** This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the behaviors of children. It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situations. "It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group behaviours and social institutions problems are evaluated." **Characteristics of Observation Schedule:** 1\. It serves a formulated research purpose. 2\. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly. 3\. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions. 4\. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability and precision. 5\. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem. 6\. It is based mainly on visual --audio scene. 7\. It employs own experiences. 8\. It establishes cause-effect relationship. 9\. It is an objective technique of data collection. 10\. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique. 11\. It is formal as well as informal technique. 12\. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection. **Advantages:** 1\. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information. 2\. We get first hand data through this method. 3\. Record of observation is also available immediately. 4\. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method. 5\. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct information. **Limitations:** 1\. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly. 2\. It is subjective method. 3\. It is very time consuming process. 4\. Costly so energy consuming also. 5\. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes conscious. 6\. In case covert behavior, which can't be observed, it is not useful. 7\. Observer should be trained and experienced. **Rating Scale:** Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which such judgments may be quantified. "Rating is an essence and direct observation." In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and perceptions. **Advantages:** 1\. Writing reports to parents. 2\. Filling out admission blanks for colleges. 3\. Finding out students' needs. 4\. Making recommendations to employers. 5\. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child. 6\. Stimulating effect upon the rates. **Limitations:** 1\. Difference in rating abilities. 2\. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating. 3\. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only. 4\. Average superior than single. 5\. Impact of emotions. 6\. Limits of self-rating. 7\. Over rating. 8\. Limits of rating of specific qualities. 9\. Limits of justifications. **Activities Involved in Data Collection:** Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality. **Access to Data:** Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the institutions or the persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any board or university may not have access to confidential data. **Adequate Standard:** The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled. \(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of validity. In other words the data should, ensure what they claimed to measure. \(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error. The following types of error are possible in data collection; \(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/ instrument. \(b) Error of bias. \(c) Deliberate falsehood. \(d) Distortion of facts. \(e) Random errors. \(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that proper generalization could be made. \(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under which the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording method should be used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms; \(a) notes of the researcher \(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the experiment or conducting a field study \(c) Interview notes \(d) Responses to questionnaires \(e) Recording on tape recorder. \(f) Video cameras \(g) Transcribing data for computer input **Data Organization:** Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that an extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the following; \(a) Sources of data \(b) Conditions under which data were gathered. There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable prospects of retrieval when required. **Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:** The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement, field observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules etc. The secondary data can be collected from technical publications such as manuals, handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and journals, official publications of the Central government, state governments, local bodies, private data services and computer data base. **General Rules:** There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection. They are as follows; \(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research problem. \(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and unambiguous. \(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments. \(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems themselves. \(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as possible. \(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional. **DATA ANALYSIS** **Data analysis** is the process of inspecting, [cleansing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_cleansing), [transforming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transformation), and [modeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modeling) [data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data) with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, and is used in different business, science, and social science domains. ***Analysis***, refers to dividing a whole into its separate components for individual examination. ***Data analysis***, is a [process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theory) for obtaining [raw data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_data), and subsequently converting it into information useful for decision-making by users. ***Data***, is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses, or disprove theories. Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative type. It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantitative analysis is made and statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special position in research because they provide answers to the problems. **Purpose:** The following are the main purposes of data analysis: **(i) Description**: It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not known; he must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to collect data. **(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale**: The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers generated by measuring instruments can be placed into one of four categories: **(a) Nominal**: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not less than no 2.Similarly no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3. **(b) Ordinal**: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such as from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later. **(c) Interval**: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this type of measurement the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C. **(d) Ratio Scale**: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero point. **(iii) Generating empirical relationships**: Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship which will be found from the collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier to determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods. **(iv) Explanation and prediction**: Generally knowledge and research are equated with the identification of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many fields the research has not been developed to the level where causal explanation is possible or valid predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another. **Functions:** The following are the main functions of data analysis: \(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the problem. \(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the problem. \(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis. \(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in lay man's term. \(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations. \(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data permits for the analysis of data. **Statistical Calculations:** The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the purpose of the analysis. **(i)** **Descriptive Statistics** Descriptive statistics describe, show, and summarize the basic features of a dataset found in a given study, presented in a summary that describes the [data](https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-data-article) sample and its measurements. It helps analysts to understand the data better. Descriptive statistics represent the available data sample and do not include theories, inferences, probabilities, or conclusions. The **descriptive statistics** may be on any of the following forms: **(a) Measures of Central Tendency**: These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and harmonic mean. In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first three will be used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem. **(b) Measures of Variability**: These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of standard deviation is very frequently made for the purpose of analysis. **(c) Measures of Relative Position**: These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and percentile ranks.All of them are used in educational statistics for data analysis. **(d) Measures of Relationship**: There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and multiple correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the analysis of data. However the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl pearson method. **(ii)** **Inferential Statistics** Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that makes the use of various analytical tools to draw inferences about the population data from sample data. Inferential statistics can be defined as a field of statistics that uses analytical tools for drawing conclusions about a population by examining random samples. The goal of inferential statistics is to make generalizations about a population. In inferential statistics, a statistic is taken from the sample data (e.g., the sample mean) that used to make inferences about the population parameter (e.g., the population mean). There are two main types of inferential statistics - hypothesis testing and regression analysis. The samples chosen in inferential statistics need to be representative of the entire population. The **inferential statistics** may be in any one of the following forms: **(a) Significance of Difference between Means**: It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between population means of two samples. **(b) Analysis of Variance**: The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant difference between the means of two random samples. The F test enables the researcher to determine whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent then the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F ratio. **(c) Analysis of Co-Variance**: It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of difference between means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation between the dependent variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by adjusting initial mean differences in the group. **(d) Correlation Methods**: Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of calculating the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation. **(e) Chi Square Test**: It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance accounts to the observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency are used for evaluating Chi Square. **(f) Regression Analysis**: For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for predicting the phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is cone.