Reproductive System PDF

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM PRESENTED BY: GROUP 5 The reproductive system is the group of organs and structures in the body responsible for producing offspring. It includes both internal and external organs that work together to enable reproduction, ensure the development of reproductive cells (gamet...

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM PRESENTED BY: GROUP 5 The reproductive system is the group of organs and structures in the body responsible for producing offspring. It includes both internal and external organs that work together to enable reproduction, ensure the development of reproductive cells (gametes), and support the processes of fertilization, pregnancy, and childbirth.  Female reproductive Male reproductive system system Produce the eggs necessary for reproduction, called Produces, maintains and transports sperm (the male the ova (ovum is singular for one egg) or oocytes reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen) Produce the eggs necessary for reproduction, called Discharges sperm within the female reproductive the ova (ovum is singular for one egg) or oocytes tract during sex Incubate and nourish a fertilized egg until it is fully Produces and secretes male sex hormones developed responsible for maintaining the male reproductive system Produce female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle Penis, Scrotum, Testicles (testes), Epididymis, Ductus (vas) deferens, Ejaculatory ducts, Urethra. Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Vulva Female reproductive Male reproductive system system Puberty and Sexual Maturation  Introduction Definition: Puberty is the biological process through which children develop physical and sexual characteristics, enabling them to reproduce. Timeline: Typically begins between ages 8-13 in females and 9-14 in males. Variability exists due to genetics, health, and environmental factors. Key Players: Hormones (e.g., GnRH, LH, FSH, testosterone, and estrogen). Brain and endocrine system interactions.  Physical Changes in Females Breast Development (Thelarche): Earliest sign of puberty. Triggered by estrogen. Growth of Pubic and Axillary Hair (Pubarche): Due to androgenic activity. Menarche: Onset of menstruation, typically occurs 2-3 years after thelarche. Growth Spurt: Peak height velocity occurs earlier than in males.  Physical Changes in Males Testicular Enlargement (Gonadarche): First sign of male puberty. Penile Growth: Due to androgenic activity. Growth of Pubic, Axillary, and Facial Hair: Stimulated by testosterone. Voice Deepening: Due to laryngeal enlargement and vocal cord thickening. Growth Spurt: Occurs later than in females, but generally results in greater final height.  Sexual Maturation and Fertility Females: Ovulation begins with the menstrual cycle, although initial cycles may be anovulatory. Fertility is established with regular ovulatory cycles. Males: Sperm production begins with testicular maturation. Fertility is established with the ability to produce viable sperm. DISORDERS OF PUBERTY  PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY The traditional definition of precocious puberty is the development of secondary sexual characteristics before 8 years of age in girls and 9 years in boys. Divided into two types: Central Precocious Puberty (CPP): Caused by premature activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Peripheral Precocious Puberty (PPP): Caused by hormone production independent of the HPG axis. Precocious puberty symptoms include: Breast growth and first period in girls. Testicle and penis growth, facial hair and deeper voice in boys. Pubic or underarm hair. Rapid growth. Acne. Adult body odor.  PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY Causes: Central Idiopathic (most common, especially in girls). Brain abnormalities (e.g., tumors, trauma, infections like meningitis). Peripheral Ovarian or testicular tumors. Adrenal disorders (e.g., congenital adrenal hyperplasia, adrenal tumors). Exposure to external sex hormones. Complications: Early closure of growth plates, resulting in short adult stature. Social and psychological challenges due to early maturation. Treatment: GnRH analogs to suppress premature activation of the HPG axis (for CPP). Treat underlying causes in PPP.  DELAYED PUBERTY Lack of pubertal changes by age 13 in girls and 14 in boys. May result from chronic illness, nutritional deficits, or hormonal dysfunction. Types: Constitutional Delay of Growth and Puberty (CDGP): Most common cause, often familial and self-resolving. Pathological Delayed Puberty: Hypogonadism (reduced gonadal function)  OTHER CONDITIONS Gynecomastia in Males: Temporary breast tissue enlargement due to an imbalance between testosterone and estrogen. Common in early to mid-puberty and usually resolves spontaneously. Persistent cases may indicate liver disease, medication effects, or hormonal imbalance. Treatment: Reassurance for transient cases; treat underlying causes if persistent. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Onset often during adolescence. Symptoms: Irregular periods, excessive androgen levels, acne, and hirsutism. Treatment: Lifestyle changes, hormonal therapy (e.g., oral contraceptives). Primary Amenorrhea (Females): Failure to menstruate by age 15 in the presence of other pubertal signs. Causes: Structural anomalies (e.g., Müllerian agenesis). Chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Turner Syndrome). Endocrine disorders (e.g., hypothalamic dysfunction). Treatment: Based on underlying cause. CIRCUMCISION  What is Circumcision? Definition Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin, a fold of skin covering the glans (head) of the penis. Most circumcision procedure are done to infants. Prevalence: Practiced globally, with approximately 37-39% of males circumcised. * Performed for medical, cultural, or religious reasons. *Morris BJ, Wamai RG, Henebeng EB, Tobian AA, Klausner JD, Banerjee J, Hankins CA. Estimation of country-specific and global prevalence of male circumcision. Popul Health Metr. 2016 Mar 1;14:4. doi: 10.1186/s12963-016-0073-5. Erratum in: Popul Health Metr. 2016 Apr 04;14:11. doi: 10.1186/s12963-016-0080-6. PMID: 26933388; PMCID: PMC4772313. ANATOMY AND FUNCTION OF THE FORESKIN Structure: Foreskin (prepuce) is composed of specialized mucosal and epithelial tissue. Contains blood vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatic tissue. Function Protection: Shields the glans from irritation and infection. Sensory: Rich in nerve endings that contribute to sexual sensation. Immunological: Produces smegma, combination of oils, skin cells, sweat and other fluids.  BENEFITS AND RISKS OF CIRCUMCISION Benefits: Reduces the risk of HIV infection by up to 60% in heterosexual men (WHO). * Lowers rates of penile infections and certain cancers. * Enhances hygiene in some populations. Risks: Bleeding, infection, scarring, or improper removal. Pain and discomfort during recovery. Rare but severe complications, such as urethral damage or amputation. Controversial impact on sexual sensation. * Morris BJ, Krieger JN, Klausner JD. CDC's Male Circumcision Recommendations Represent a Key Public Health Measure. Glob Health Sci Pract. 2017 Mar 28;5(1):15-27. doi: 10.9745/GHSP-D-16-00390. PMID: 28351877; PMCID: PMC5478224. * Larke NL, Thomas SL, dos Santos Silva I, Weiss HA. Male circumcision and penile cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control. 2011 Aug;22(8):1097-110. doi: 10.1007/s10552-011-9785-9. Epub 2011 Jun 22. PMID: 21695385; PMCID: PMC3139859. SPERMATOGENESIS Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell production in the testes The process of spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues relatively constantly throughout the rest of the lifespan Following a single cell, the process of generating sperm from a spermatogonium takes approximately 64 days Primary spermatocyte - undergoes meiosis to yield haploid gametes - the resulting cells Sperm - at the end of the process the Secondary spermatocyte - undergo meiosis II formed sperm can be found within the wall of the seminiferous tubule nearest the Spermatid - resulting four haploid cells lumen.  SPERMIOGENESIS Spermiogenesis is the process of transformation of spermatids into fully developed sperm cells with a head, neck middle piece and a tail. Sperm are smaller than most cells in the body. Approximately 100 to 300 million sperm are produced each day Sperm are almost entirely made up of their nucleus; they are literally travelling missiles of DNA  The head is covered by the acrosome, a "cap" that is filled with lysosomal enzymes important for digesting the egg's coat, the zona pellucida Mid-piece is consist of mitochondria Flagellum moves through the ATP produced by the mitochondria  TESTOSTERONE testosterone, an androgen, is a steroid hormone produced by interstitial cells is also released in to systemic circulation the term interstitial means "within the tissue" testosterone are low during childhood and increase during puberty it play an important role in muscle development, bone growth, skin, and hair characteristics, behavior, and maintaining libido (sex drive) is produced in both ovaries and testes  NURSE CELL make up the wall of the seminiferous tubule and surround the developing sperm promote sperm production control whether sperm cells live or die Blood-testis barrier - keeps the bloodborne substances, as well as antibodies and immune cells from reaching the developing sperm OVARIAN CYCLE 1. Oogenesis - the production of eggs. 2. Folliculogenesis - the growth and development of ovarian follicles.  OOGENESIS Oogonia - ovarian stem cell Formed during fetal development and divides via mitosis. During the period, prior to birth, oogonia begin the process of meiosis and forms primary oocytes Primary Oocytes - where the ovarian cycle only begins. In the stage of meiosis I stop and eggs in this arrested state can be found in the ovaries throughout childhood. Number of oocytes present in the ovaries at birth represents the total number of oocytes available for the entire lifetime. 2 to 1 million - Infant 400,000 - Puberty 0 - menopause  OOGENESIS The ovarian cycle occurs an average of once every 28 days beginning at puberty and continuing until menopause. After puberty, primary oocyte will continue in meiosis and form into secondary oocyte. Just prior to ovulation, a surge of LH triggers the resumption of meiosis in a primary oocyte. Ovulation - occurs when the secondary oocyte is mature and ready for fertilization, but it hasn’t completed meiosis II. During meiosis, this cell division does not result in two identical cells. Instead the cytoplasm is divided unequally, and one daughter cell is much larger than the other. Secondary oocyte - larger cells Leaves the ovary First polar body - smaller cells Disintegrates  OOGENESIS Meiosis II is completed when a sperm fertilizes the secondary oocyte, forming a diploid cell with unique egg and sperm genomes. As meiosis is completed, the oocyte releases one or two second polar bodies containing unneeded chromosomes. Despite oogenesis producing up to four cells, only one survives to become a fertilized egg. Fertilization - completes meiosis II and forms a diploid cell. The oocyte releases second polar bodies, resulting in only one fertilized egg called zygote, after fertilization. FOLLICULOGENESIS Primordial follicle Tertiary follicle Primary follicle Ovulating follicle Secondary follicle Corpus luteum  Folliculogenesis - it is a process through which ovarian follicles mature (growing and developing). -It begins with primordial follicles and culminates in ovulation of follicular atresia. Ovarian Follicle - a small, fluid-filled sac in the ovary that contains oocytes. Primordial Follicles - the earliest stage of ovarian follicles, present from birth. Granulosa Cells - cells that surround the oocyte. It nurtures and supports its growth. Primary Follicles - the stage when the primordial follicle becomes a primary follicle. The granulosa cells become cuboidal (from squamous) as they increase in size, while the oocyte begins to grow. Secondary Follicles - In this stage, the follicle continues to grow and a fluid-filled space called the antrum starts to form. Thecal cells - a new layer of cells surrounds the follicle. They work with granulosa cells to produce hormones like estrogen. Zona Pellucida - a thick, transparent layer of proteins that forms around the oocyte. It protects the egg during fertilization from sperm penetration. Follicular Fluid - a fluid that accumulates within the follicle as it develops, eventually forming the antrum. It helps to nourish the oocyte and maintain the proper environment for its development. Tertiary Follicle - the fully mature follicle that is ready for ovulation. The antrum is large, and the oocyte is surrounded by a cluster of granulosa cells called the cumulus oophorus Atresia - it is when follicles do not reach maturity. - The process of degeneration. - Only a small number of follicles reach the tertiary stage and are capable of ovulation. Ruptured Follicle: At ovulation, the mature tertiary follicle ruptures, releasing the secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube for fertilization.  Corpus Luteum: After the follicle ruptures, the remaining follicular cells transform into the corpus luteum. It is a temporary endocrine structure that secretes progesterone. - Corpus Luteum is from latin word “yellow body” - Lutein cells give it a distinct yellow color. The corpus luteum is important because it temporarily acts as an endocrine gland, producing progesterone (and some estrogen), which helps maintain the uterine lining. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum gradually breaks down, decrease progesterone and, eventually, menstruation.  HORMONAL REGULATION (MALE) HYPOTHALAMUS GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GNRH) ANTERIOR PITUITARY LUTEINIZING FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (LH) HORMONE (FSH) INTERSTITIAL CELLS SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES TESTOSTERONE SERTOLI CELLS ANDROGEN BINDING PROTEIN (ABP)  HORMONAL REGULATION (MALE) HYPOTHALAMUS GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GNRH) ANTERIOR PITUITARY FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES SUSTENTACULAR CELLS ANDROGEN BINDING PROTEIN (ABP) INHIBIN  HORMONAL REGULATION (MALE) Hormonal regulation of the male body is largely connected to the endocrine glands located in the brain and Hypothalamic-Pituitary axis. The hypothalamus initiates the synthesis and secretion of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH). GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary and causes the secretion of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). FSH and LH hormones circulate in the bloodstream and act at the testes to produce testosterone and stimulate the process of spermatogenesis. LH positively affects the Leydig cells located within the interstitial spaces between the seminiferous tubules and stimulates the cells to produce testosterone. FSH acts at Sertoli cells located within the seminiferous tubules and stimulates the process of spermatogenesis. FSH does this by stimulating Sertoli cells to produce antigen binding protein (ABP), which leads to testosterone hormone uptake, increases its concentration within the seminiferous tubules, and initiating the production of sperms by the spermatogenic cells inside the tubules. HORMONAL REGULATION (FEMALE) HYPOTHALAMUS GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GNRH) ANTERIOR PITUITARY LUTEINIZING FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (LH) HORMONE (FSH) DEVELOPMENT OF OVULATION FOLLICLE CORPUS LUTEUM ESTROGEN INHIBIN PROGESTERONE  HORMONAL REGULATION (FEMALE) The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovary, while FSH promotes follicle development. After ovulation, the corpus luteum forms and produces progesterone, preparing the uterus for maturation. Estrogen, produced by the secondary follicle, plays a role in female sexual development. Inhibin, also produced by the secondary follicle, helps regulate FSH production. This intricate interplay of hormones ensures the proper functioning of the female reproductive system.  MENSTRUAL CYCLE WHAT IS MENSTRUATION? the monthly shedding of the lining of your uterus. also known by the terms menses, menstrual period, menstrual cycle or period. The average length of a menstrual cycle is 28 days. However, a cycle can range in length from 21 days to about 35 days and still be normal. People start menstruating at the average age of 12. However, you can begin menstruating as early as 8 years old or as late as 16 years old. People stop menstruating at menopause, which occurs at about the age of 51.  MENSTRUAL CYCLE Menstruation is driven by hormones. Your pituitary gland and your ovaries make and release certain hormones at certain times during your menstrual cycle. The average length of a menstrual cycle is 28 days. However, a cycle can range in length from 21 days to about 35 days and still be normal. MENSTRUAL BLOOD partly blood and partly tissue from the inside of your uterus, through your cervix and out of your body through your vagina.  4 PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE 1. THE MENSES PHASE This phase begins on the first day of your period. It's when the lining of your uterus sheds through your vagina if pregnancy hasn’t occurred. 2. THE FOLLICULAR PHASE This phase begins on the day you get your period and ends at ovulation. During this time, the level of the hormone estrogen rises, which causes the lining of your uterus (the endometrium) to grow and thicken.  4 PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE 3. OVULATION when a mature egg is released from an ovary. This phase occurs roughly at about day 14 in a 28-day menstrual cycle. 4. THE LUTEAL PHASE This phase lasts from about day 15 to day 28. Your egg leaves your ovary and begins to travel through your fallopian tubes to your uterus.  SYMPTOMS OF GETTING YOUR PERIOD The most common symptom is cramps. The cramping you feel in your pelvic area is your uterus contracting to release its lining. Other signs you’re getting your period are: Mood changes. Trouble sleeping. Headache. Food cravings. Bloating. Breast tenderness. Acne.  IRREGULAR MENSTRUATION describes anything that’s not a normal menstrual period. Some examples of an irregular period are: Periods that occur less than 21 days or more than 35 days apart. Not having a period for three months (or 90 days). Menstrual flow that’s much heavier or lighter than usual. Period bleeding that lasts longer than seven days. Periods that are accompanied by severe pain, cramping, nausea or vomiting. Bleeding or spotting that happens between periods. POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) a hormonal imbalance that occurs when your ovaries create excess hormones. If you have PCOS, your ovaries produce unusually high levels of hormones called androgens. Small follicle cysts may be visible on your ovaries on ultrasound due to lack of ovulation (anovulation). SYMPTOMS OF PCOS Irregular periods Abnormal hair growth Acne Obesity Darkening of the skin Cysts Skin tags Thinning hair Infertility FERTILIZATION AND PREGNANCY  SIGNS OF PREGNANCY Some people may start to feel pregnant shortly after conception, while others don’t have any pregnancy symptoms for weeks after a positive test. Common signs of pregnancy are: A missed period. Frequent urination. Feeling tired. Nausea. Sore or swollen breasts. Spotting (light vaginal bleeding). Headaches. Mood swings.  What things prevent conception from happening? Certain health conditions may affect your ability to conceive. Just because the sperm and egg meet doesn't mean fertilization will occur. Some of the most common factors are: Anovulation (you’re not ovulating). Low sperm count or issues with sperm motility (how sperm move). A blockage in the testicles, ovaries or fallopian tubes. Decreasing amount of quality eggs and quality sperm (usually related to aging).  EMBRYOLOGY AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT Müllerian ducts Embryology is the study of embryos and their Also known as the paramesonephric ducts, these paired tubes develop into the female development, while fetal development is the growth reproductive organs, including the uterus, and development of a baby from the ninth week of cervix, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina. pregnancy until birth. The Müllerian and Wolffian ducts are two sets of reproductive ducts that form in embryos and interact Wolffian ducts during gestation to develop into the male and Also known as the mesonephric ducts, these female reproductive systems. ducts form the male reproductive organs and the kidney. BIRTH CONTROL AND CONTRACEPTION Contraception Birth Control -The intentional use of artificial -A broader term that methods to prevent pregnancy. encompasses all methods in -It is more specific and refers preventing pregnancies, to methods or devices that including contraception but actively prevent fertilization. It also extending to methods that includes methods like hormonal Definition do not directly prevent pills, condoms, intrauterine fertilization. devices (IUDs), and sterilization -Natural family planning or procedures. behavioral methods like -It strictly addresses measures abstinence or fertility taken to block the biological awareness methods, which process of conception avoid pregnancy without using (fertilization of the egg by direct contraceptive devices. sperm)  BARRIER METHODS Male Condom: A thin sheath worn over the penis to catch sperm and prevent it from entering the woman's body; latex and polyurethane types also reduce sexually-transmitted infection disease (STI) risks. Female Condom: A flexible plastic pouch that covers the vagina to prevent sperm from entering the uterus; it can also protect against STIs. Contraceptive Sponge: A small sponge placed in the vagina covering the cervix, containing spermicide to kill sperm. Spermicide: A substance that kills sperm cells, available as foam, jelly, or cream, and can be used alone or with a diaphragm. Diaphragm and Cervical Cap: Cups inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix, often with spermicide. They come in different sizes, fitted by a healthcare provider. source: https://medlineplus.gov/birthcontrol.html  HORMONAL METHODS Oral Contraceptives ("The Pill"): Pills taken daily that contain hormones to prevent pregnancy. Contraceptive Patch: A patch placed on the skin weekly that releases hormones into the bloodstream. Vaginal Ring: A flexible ring inserted into the vagina, releasing hormones continuously for three weeks, removed for the fourth week. Injectable Birth Control: Hormonal injections administered every three months by a healthcare provider. Implant: A small rod inserted under the skin of the upper arm by a provider, effective for up to four years. source: https://medlineplus.gov/birthcontrol.html  Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptives (LARCs) Intrauterine Device (IUD): A small T-shaped device placed in the uterus, effective for 3-10 years, depending on the type (hormonal or copper). Sterilization (Permanent Methods) Tubal Ligation: A surgical procedure for women, permanently preventing pregnancy. Vasectomy: A surgical procedure for men, permanently preventing the ability to impregnate. source: https://medlineplus.gov/birthcontrol.html  MENOPAUSE a point in time when you’ve gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period. It’s a natural process that occurs when your ovaries stop producing reproductive hormones. When menopause happens due to surgery or medical treatment, it’s called induced menopause.  3 STAGES OF MENOPAUSE 1. PERIMENOPAUSE OR MENOPAUSE TRANSITION can begin eight to 10 years before menopause when your ovaries gradually produce less and less estrogen. Many people begin feeling symptoms like irregular periods, hot flashes and mood swings 2. MENOPAUSE the point when you no longer have menstrual periods. At this stage, your ovaries don’t release eggs, and your body doesn’t produce much estrogen Unlike the other stages, menopause itself is a defined moment, so you don’t stay in this stage.  3 STAGES OF MENOPAUSE 3. POSTMENOPAUSE You stay in postmenopause for the rest of your life. While most symptoms of menopause ease up in postmenopause, you can continue to have mild menopausal symptoms for several years in postmenopause. People in the postmenopausal phase are at an increased risk for osteoporosis and heart disease due to low estrogen levels.  ANDROPAUSE a natural age-related decline in testosterone and growth hormone levels in men. refers to a condition where men experience a decrease in sexual satisfaction or a decline in overall well-being due to low testosterone levels in older men.  SYMPTOMS ANDROPAUSE The onset of andropause may cause significant physical, psychological and emotional changes in men, including: Loss of concentration Low energy levels and fatigue Change in attitude and mood swings Depression Low sex drive Erectile dysfunction Other symptoms may include loss of muscle mass and strength, problems with memory and insomnia. LACTATION AND BREASTFEEDING  LACTATION the hormones of pregnancy prepare the breast for lactation it is governed by positive feedback loops PROLACTIN anterior pituitary hormone that controls milk production prolactin levels drop back to their pre-pregnancy levels and will not rise again unless breastfeeding occurs prolactin secretion increases after each feeding  Milk synthesis also requires other hormones, including: > cortisol > growth hormone > parathyroid hormone > insulin Nutrients in breast milk: > mother's diet > nutrient stores (her own tissues) Milk Production: driven by prolactin Oxytocin also increases positive feedback loops parasympathetic nervous system activity, resulting relaxation in Milk Ejection: lactating mother and a bond driven by oxytocin between mother and infant. operates on feedback loop stimulates oxytocin secretion  lactation also suppresses the secretion of estrogen lactation facilitates the shrinking of the uterus through estrogen suppression breastfeeding decrease the chance of breast cancer the more and longer breastfeeding, helps decrease the chance of breast cancer later in life estrogen promotes mitosis in breast tissue provide a break from fertility, stalling the resumption of follicle development and ovulation  MAMMARY GLANDS organs of milk production located within the breasts modified sweat glands Areola - raised nipple surrounded by a circular, pigmented region Areolae - slightly bumpy surface caused by areolar glands just below the surface Areolar Glands - rudimentary mammary glands Rudimentary glandular system consists mainly of ducts with sparse alveoli Enlargement of breast is caused by the influence of estrogen and progesterone Increased sensitivity or pain in the breasts often accompanies this enlargement  MAMMARY GLANDS Gynecomastia - the breasts of a male become enlarged Usually consists of 15-20 glandular lobes Adipose tissue - gives the breast its form Lactiferous duct - opens independently of other lactiferous ducts on the surface of the nipple (lak-tif'er-us; milk-producing) Nipples - very sensitive to tactile stimulation and contain smooth muscle cells causing in response to stimulation Lactiferous sinus - small & spindle- shaped; deep to the surface of lactiferous duct - accumulates milk during milk letdown (in lactating females) The lactiferous duct supplying a lobe subdivides to form smaller ducts, each of which supplies a lobule  MAMMARY GLANDS Nonlactating Breast - duct system is only the present Lactating Breast - the ends of mammary glands small ducts expand to form secretory sacs called alveoli Myoepithelial Cells - surround the alveoli and contract to expel milk  Assisted Reproductive Technology Assisted reproductive technology (ART) refers to fertility treatments and procedures that can help with difficulties or an inability to conceive children. ART techniques involve the manipulation of eggs, sperm, or embryos to increase the likelihood of a successful pregnancy. >Types of Assisted Reproductive Technology In vitro fertilization (IVF) In vitro fertilization (IVF) is the joining of a woman's egg and a man's sperm in a laboratory dish. In vitro means outside the body. Fertilization means the sperm has attached to and entered the egg.  Assisted Reproductive Technology Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) Intracytoplasmic sperm injection, or ICSI, involves injecting a single live sperm directly into the center of a human egg. The technique was developed to help achieve fertilization for couples with severe male factor infertility or couples who have had failure to fertilize in a previous in vitro fertilization (IVF) attempt. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) Gamete intrafallopian tube transfer/transplantation is a method of assisting pregnancy, which includes removing the female egg and sperm and mixing it into the fallopian tube immediately.  Assisted Reproductive Technology Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) is similar to GIFT, but also uses in vitro fertilization (IVF). Eggs are stimulated and collected using IVF methods. Then the eggs are mixed with sperm in the lab. Fertilized eggs (zygotes) are then returned to the fallopian tubes with laparascopic surgery. Surrogacy Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman (the surrogate) agrees to carry and give birth to a child on behalf of another person or couple (the intended parent/s).  COITUS "Coitus" is a term derived from Latin that refers to “sexual intercourse”, specifically the physical act of sexual union between two individuals. It often implies penetration as part of the act, typically in a reproductive or intimate context.  SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIS)  What Are STIs? Definition STIs are infections transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. Caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi. Types of Transmission: Blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and skin-to-skin contact. From mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding (e.g., HIV). Significance: Major public health issue worldwide, affecting millions annually.  Common STIs and Their Causes Type Cause Examples Bacterial STIs Bacteria Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis Viral STIs Viruses HIV, HPV, Herpes, Hepatitis B Parasitic STIs Parasites Trichomoniasis Fungal STIs Fungi Candidiasis (Yeast Infection)  Symptoms of STIs General Symptoms General Symptoms: Painful urination. Unusual discharge from the genitals. Genital sores, warts, or rashes. Itching or irritation. Pain during sex. Flu-like symptoms (fever, swollen lymph nodes). Asymptomatic Cases: Many STIs (e.g., chlamydia, HPV) show no symptoms, especially in early stages.  Most Common STIs Chlamydia Cause: Chlamydia trachomatis (bacteria). Symptoms: Discharge, pelvic pain, painful urination. Often asymptomatic. Complications: Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infertility. Treatment: Antibiotics (e.g., azithromycin).  Most Common STIs Gonorrhea Cause: Neisseria gonorrhoeae (bacteria). Symptoms: Green or yellow discharge, painful urination. Complications: PID, infertility, joint infections. Treatment: Dual antibiotics (e.g., ceftriaxone and azithromycin).  Most Common STIs Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Cause: HPV virus. Symptoms: Genital warts, may be asymptomatic. Complications: Cervical, anal, and oral cancers. Prevention: Vaccination, regular screening.  Most Common STIs Syphilis Cause: Treponema pallidum (bacteria). Stages: Primary Stage: Painless sores (chancre) appear at the infection site. Secondary Stage: Skin rashes and mucous membrane lesions. Latent Stage: No symptoms, but the infection persists. Tertiary Stage: Can cause severe damage to organs, including the brain, heart, and nerves. Complications: Neurological damage (neurosyphilis), blindness, or death if untreated. Treatment: Penicillin G injection.  Most Common STIs Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Cause: HSV-1: Usually causes oral herpes (cold sores). HSV-2: Causes genital herpes. Symptoms: Painful blisters or ulcers in the genital or mouth area. Recurring outbreaks due to the virus remaining dormant in the body. Transmission: Skin-to-skin contact, including non-penetrative sexual activity. Complications: Can cause neonatal herpes during childbirth. Treatment: No cure; antiviral medications (e.g., acyclovir) help manage symptoms.  Prevention of STIs 1. Safe Sexual Practices: Use condoms consistently and correctly. Limit number of sexual partners. Engage in mutual monogamy with an uninfected partner. 2. Vaccination: HPV vaccine (recommended for ages 9–26). Hepatitis B vaccine. 3. Regular Testing: Routine STI screening, especially for sexually active individuals or those with multiple partners. 4. Education and Communication: Discuss sexual history with partners. Stay informed about STI risks and symptoms. 5. Avoid Risky Behaviors: Avoid sharing needles or engaging in high-risk sexual activities. THANK YOU! GROUP 5