Reproduction and Inheritance Year 10 Integrated Science PDF

Reproduction and Inheritance Year 10 Integrated Science Secondary sexual characteristics in males and the male reproductive 01 system By: Mahek & Mehran Introduction to Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system is responsible for producing, storing, and delivering sperm, which is essential for human reproduction. Secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that develop during puberty, distinguishing males from females and playing a key role in sexual maturity. These characteristics result from hormonal changes, primarily driven by testosterone. Secondary sexual characteristics in males and the male reproductive system Facial and Body Hair: Growth of facial hair (beard and mustache) and increased body hair (chest, abdomen, limbs). Voice Deepening: The larynx enlarges, leading to a deeper voice. Muscle Mass: Increase in muscle size and strength due to testosterone promoting muscle growth. Bone Growth: Growth spurt and development of broader shoulders and chest due to bone growth. Genital Development: Enlargement of the penis and testes. Skin Changes: Increase in oil secretion, leading to acne. Secondary sexual characteristics in males and the male reproductive system Hormonal Influence The development of secondary sexual characteristics is regulated by hormones: Testosterone: Produced by the testes, it is the primary male sex hormone responsible for the physical changes during puberty. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Stimulates testosterone production. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Works with testosterone to stimulate sperm production. A PICTURE ALWAYS REINFORCES THE CONCEPT Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone. Epididymis: Stores sperm. Vas Deferens: Carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. Seminal Vesicles and Prostate Gland: Produce fluids that nourish and transport sperm (semen). Penis: Organ through which urine and semen are discharged. Scrotum: External sac that houses the testes, helping regulate their temperature for sperm production. *The scrotum maintains a temperature 2–3°C lower than the core body temperature to support optimal sperm production and storage. This cooler temperature is necessary because high temperatures can impair sperm quality and reduce fertility. The system explained When the erect penis is stimulated, muscles around the reproductive organs contract and force the semen through the duct system and urethra. Semen is pushed out of the male's body through his urethra — this process is called ejaculation. Each time a guy ejaculates, it can contain up to 500 million sperm. If semen is ejaculated into a female's vagina, millions of sperm "swim" up from the vagina through the cervix and uterus to meet the egg in the fallopian tube. It takes only one sperm to fertilize the egg. This fertilized egg is now called a zygote and contains 46 chromosomes — half from the egg and half from the sperm. Genetic material from the male and female combine so that a new individual can be created. The zygote divides again and again as it grows in the female's uterus, maturing over the course of the pregnancy into an embryo, a fetus, and finally a newborn baby. Female secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive system By Bri, My, Abhi 01 Secondary Sexual Characteristics Secondary Sexual Characteristics These are physical changes that occurs in female during puberty triggered by hormonal shifts, and increase in estrogen. It helps distinguish females from males although they don't directly participate in reproduction 02 Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics Breast Development Breast development is a key secondary sexual characteristic in females that occurs during puberty, typically between ages 8 and 13. This process happens in stages, beginning with the formation of breast buds (small mounds under the nipples) and followed by the growth of glandular and fatty tissues, which give the breasts their shape. As development progresses, the areola enlarges, and in some cases, forms a secondary mound before eventually blending into the breast contour in the ﬁnal stage. Estrogen and progesterone play a central role in stimulating this growth. Fully developed breasts may vary in size and shape, reﬂecting individual genetics and body composition. Pelvic Structure Changes Pelvic Bones: During puberty, the female pelvis undergoes structural changes to accommodate the needs of pregnancy and childbirth. Estrogen promotes the growth and development of the pelvic bones, particularly the ilium (the upper part of the hip bones), which spreads apart. This widening of the hips is a natural part of skeletal maturation. Broader Pelvis: The pelvic cavity enlarges to make room for a potential fetus. As the hips widen, the pubic arch (the angle between the pubic bones) also becomes wider and more rounded. This helps create a birth canal that will allow for easier passage of a baby during childbirth. Fat Distribution In addition to the changes in bone structure, estrogen also affects fat distribution. As girls mature, fat begins to accumulate more in the hip area and thighs, contributing to a more rounded, feminine body shape. This fat is essential for storing energy that could be used during pregnancy and lactation. This increased fat storage is particularly noticeable around the gluteal region, and as a result, women tend to develop a fuller ﬁgure, with more pronounced curves compared to prepubescent body types. Hormonal Influence Estrogen's Role: Estrogen is the primary hormone responsible for triggering the physical changes of puberty in females, including the widening of the hips. As estrogen levels rise, they stimulate the growth of bones and the redistribution of body fat. The hormone promotes the softening of the cartilage that connects the pelvic bones, which allows the pelvis to widen and accommodate the birth process. Progesterone's Role: Along with estrogen, progesterone also plays a part in regulating changes in the pelvis and other reproductive organs. While estrogen is more directly involved in the physical changes of the hips and pelvis, progesterone works to maintain the readiness of the body for pregnancy and childbirth. Genetic Variation It is important to note that the extent and rate of hip widening can vary signiﬁcantly between individuals. Genetics play a large role in determining the shape and width of the pelvis. While some females may experience more pronounced widening, others may have a naturally narrower hip structure. Lifestyle factors, such as exercise, diet, and overall health, can also inﬂuence how the body stores fat and shapes the hips, but the basic skeletal widening is largely driven by hormonal changes during puberty. In summary, the widening of the hips in females during puberty is a key indicator of sexual maturity and is vital for reproductive function, particularly childbirth. The process involves changes in the pelvic bones, fat distribution, and hormonal shifts, all contributing to a more rounded, feminine appearance. What is Menstruation Menstruation is the monthly process in which the lining of the uterus, also called the womb, is shed if no pregnancy occurs. This natural biological process results in bleeding from the vagina. It usually starts between the ages of 10 and 16 and is a sign that the body is maturing. A typical menstrual cycle lasts between 28 and 35 days, while the actual bleeding phase, also known as a period, usually lasts for 3 to 7 days. What is Menstruation Menstruation is the monthly process in which the lining of the uterus, also called the womb, is shed if no pregnancy occurs. This natural biological process results in bleeding from the vagina. It usually starts between the ages of 10 and 16 and is a sign that the body is maturing. A typical menstrual cycle lasts between 28 and 35 days, while the actual bleeding phase, also known as a period, usually lasts for 3 to 7 days. Menstruation Menstruation is an important part of the reproductive system that prepares the body for pregnancy each month. It starts when the brain tells the pituitary gland to release hormones that help the ovaries develop an egg. If the egg isn’t fertilized, hormone levels drop, and the uterus sheds its lining as menstrual blood, which comes out of the vagina. This cycle repeats every month until menopause. The menstrual cycle has four phases, controlled by hormones. The ﬁrst phase is the menstrual phase, where the uterus sheds its lining and bleeding happens. This happens because the levels of progesterone and estrogen drop. The second phase is the follicular phase, which starts with menstruation and continues until ovulation. During this phase, the pituitary gland releases a hormone that helps eggs mature and estrogen thickens the uterus lining. Menstruation Ovulation happens around day 14 of the menstrual cycle when a hormone called luteinizing hormone (LH) causes a mature egg to be released from the ovary. The egg travels through the fallopian tube, waiting to be fertilized. In the ﬁnal phase, the luteal phase, the ovary forms a structure called the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone to support the uterine lining. If the egg isn’t fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down, hormone levels drop, and the cycle starts again. Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle can cause different symptoms. oxytocin, released during menstruation, cause the uterus to contract, which can lead to cramps. Changes in estrogen and progesterone can cause fatigue, bloating, and sore breasts. Emotional changes like mood swings, irritability, or sadness can happen because of a drop in serotonin levels, which are affected by estrogen. Hormones can also cause acne. These symptoms can vary from person to person, and if they’re severe, they could be signs of conditions like endometriosis or polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Scientific Importance of Menstruation Menstruation is not only a natural biological process but also a crucial indicator of reproductive and overall health. A regular menstrual cycle reﬂects the proper functioning of the endocrine system, which regulates hormone production, as well as the health of the reproductive organs, including the ovaries and uterus. Additionally, the menstrual cycle plays a central role in reproduction, ensuring the body is prepared for pregnancy and creating optimal conditions for a fertilized egg to implant. From a scientiﬁc perspective, studying menstruation has led to advancements in understanding hormone-related disorders, fertility treatments, and reproductive health conditions. Tracking menstrual cycles helps individuals recognize patterns and detect abnormalities early, such as irregular periods, heavy bleeding, or missed cycles, which may signal thyroid disorders, hormonal imbalances, or other medical concerns. Overall, menstruation serves as an essential measure of health and provides critical insights into the body’s well-being. Scientific Importance of Menstruation Hormones in reproduction and the endocrine system, including fertilization, gestation, and the menstrual cycle Introduction to the Endocrine System in Reproduction What is Endocrine system? The Endocrine system is a network of glands and organs that secrete hormones to regulate bodily functions, including reproduction. Key Organs: Hypothalamus: The "master regulator," it controls Main Hormones: hormone release from the pituitary gland through GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone). GnRH, LH, FSH, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, Pituitary Gland: Releases hormones like LH (luteinizing oxytocin, and prolactin are essential for reproduction. hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) that directly influence the gonads. Purpose: Gonads: Ovaries in females produce estrogen and progesterone; testes in males produce testosterone. Regulates the menstrual cycle, enabling ovulation and Placenta: Temporarily acts as a hormone-secreting organ preparation for potential pregnancy. during pregnancy, producing hCG, progesterone, and Facilitates fertilization, gestation, and childbirth. estrogen. Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle Phases: 1. Follicular Phase (Day 1-14): ○ The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the pituitary to release FSH and LH. ○ FSH: Promotes the growth of ovarian follicles. ○ Estrogen: Produced by developing follicles, and helps with growth and repair. 2. FSH: Peaks during the follicular phase, initiating follicle growth. 3. LH: Surges around Day 14, triggering ovulation. 4. Estrogen: Rises during the follicular phase, peaking just before ovulation. 5. Progesterone: Increases during the… 1. Ovulation (Day 14): ○ A surge in LH triggers the release of a mature egg from the ovary. 2. Luteal Phase (Day 15-28): ○ The corpus luteum (remains of the follicle) secretes progesterone to maintain the uterine lining. ○ If fertilization does not occur, progesterone and estrogen levels drop, leading to menstruation. Key Point: Hormonal coordination ensures proper egg maturation, ovulation, and uterine preparation. Hormones in Fertilization Diagram: Illustrates sperm-egg Process: interaction, fertilization, and the role of hCG in early pregnancy. Pre-Fertilization: ○ Estrogen increases the permeability of cervical mucus, aiding sperm movement toward the egg. ○ LH and FSH regulate ovum maturation and release. Fertilization: ○ Occurs in the fallopian tube when a sperm successfully penetrates the egg. Post-Fertilization: ○ The zygote produces hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), which prevents the degradation of the corpus luteum. ○ The corpus luteum continues producing progesterone to maintain the uterine lining. The Diagram illustrates the process of fertilization, starting with sperm moving toward the ovum, depicted as a yellow circle, in the fallopian tube. One sperm successfully penetrates the egg, leading to the formation of a zygote (fertilized egg). Following fertilization, the zygote secretes hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), shown with a purple arrow, which signals the corpus luteum in the ovary to continue producing progesterone. This hormone is crucial for maintaining the uterine lining, ensuring the embryo's successful implantation and development in early pregnancy. Hormones During Gestation (Pregnancy) Hormonal Changes: 1. hCG: ○ Peaks during the first trimester, ensuring the corpus luteum sustains progesterone production. 2. Progesterone: ○ Prevents uterine contractions, ensuring the embryo's stability. ○ Maintains the uterine lining. 3. Estrogen: ○ Stimulates uterine growth and increases blood flow to the placenta. 4. Relaxin: ○ Softens ligaments in preparation for childbirth. The graph illustrates hormonal fluctuations during pregnancy, showing high levels 5. Prolactin: of hCG (purple line) peaking in the first trimester around week 10-12, crucial for ○ Prepares breasts for milk production. maintaining early pregnancy by supporting the corpus luteum. After this peak, 6. Oxytocin hCG levels decline as the placenta takes over hormone production. Progesterone Known as the "love hormone," it plays a role in bonding with (orange dashed line) steadily rises throughout pregnancy, preventing uterine the baby. contractions and supporting the endometrium. Estrogen (green dotted line) also increases significantly in later stages, promoting uterine growth, blood flow, and It also helps with contractions during labor and delivery. fetal development. Together, these hormones ensure a stable environment for the fetus and prepare the body for labor and delivery. Hormones in reproduction and the endocrine system, including fertilization, gestation, and the menstrual cycle 03 Genetics 04 and heredity By Nabeel, Austin & Ava Deﬁnitions DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder — a shape known as a double helix. Bases: Adenine,Thymine,Guanine,Cytosine(Nitrogenous Bases) - (Sugar Phosphate Backbone) Chromosomes: A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. RNA: Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to DNA. Bases: Adenine,Uracil,Cytosine,Guanine Traits: A trait, as related to genetics, is a specific characteristic of an individual. Traits can be determined by genes, environmental factors or by a combination of both. Genes: The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to child. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and are arranged, one after another, at specific locations on chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. Alleles: "Allele" is the word that we use to describe the alternative form or versions of a gene. Homozygous vs. Heterozygous Heterozygous Two different alleles from the two parents if one person has blue eyes and the other has brown eyes it will be heterozygous and the eye colour shall be brown one dominant and the other being recessive Homozygous Two identical alleles from the two parents and example of this is eye colours if the parents have the same eye colour it will be a homozygous gene it is common in inbred Variation Continuous A characteristic that changes gradually over a range of time/values. Often influenced by multiple genes (polygenic inheritance) and environmental factors. Discontinuous A characteristic that does not have an in between they have strong characteristics and are controlled by 1 or a few genes Causes of variation Mutation - Sudden changes in the dna it can be harmful, beneficial or neutral Meiosis - During the formation of the gametes the random distribution of chromosomes creates genetic variation Fertilization - Random combinations of sperm and egg contributes to the genetic factor as each gamete carries different genetics Gene flow - When genes are exchanged between two different populations(e.g hispanic and european) Causes of variation Nutrition - nutrition affects the growth of a individual (can affect height for example) Climate - different climates have different temperatures, sunlight and elevation which can affect the variation (e.g sun and skin colour) Lifestyle - exercise and activity levels can influence the traits like body shape and muscle development Group 5 Punnett Squares, Genotypes and Phenotypes By: Aaron, Jonathan and Sandra PUNNETT SQUARES: The Genetics of Genotypes and Phenotypes WHAT ARE GENOTYPES? A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, represented by alleles. These alleles can be homozygous (identical) or heterozygous (different). Understanding genotypes is crucial for predicting potential phenotypes, which are the observable traits resulting from these genetic combinations. WHAT ARE PHENOTYPES? A phenotype is the physical expression of a genotype, encompassing traits such as color, size, and shape. These traits can be inﬂuenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Recognizing the distinction between genotype and phenotype is vital in genetics to understand how traits manifest. INTRODUCTION TO PUNNETT SQUARES Punnett Squares are essential tools in genetics that help visualize the probability of inheriting certain traits. By understanding the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes, we can predict how traits are passed from parents to offspring. How do you construct it? APPLICATION OF PUNNETT SQUARES Punnett Squares are widely used in ﬁelds like agriculture, medicine, and evolutionary biology. They help predict traits in crops, assess genetic disorders in humans, and understand inheritance patterns in populations, making them valuable for both research and practical applications. Conclusion In summary, Punnett Squares are invaluable tools for understanding the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes. They simplify the complexities of genetic inheritance, enabling predictions about offspring traits. Bye :) Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering by Ranya and Ayan Introduction to Biotechnology and genetic engineering Biotechnology is a ﬁeld with different aspects including using biological systems, organisms, or their components to develop products and processes with speciﬁc purposes. It is a combined version of technology and biology that is used to solve problems in areas such as medicine, agriculture, industry, and environmental science.Genetic engineering is the general term applied to a subset of biotechnologies it involves the manipulation of an organism's DNA for the express purpose of introducing, eliminating, or modifying speciﬁc traits, such as the development of pesticide-resistant crops or the production of insulin through engineered bacteria. Food Production The production of food by way of biotechnology and genetic engineering involves changes made in organisms to emphasize certain traits. In plants, genes are introduced into varieties of plants to confer resistance against pests and drought, or to improve nutritional value, as is the case with genetically modiﬁed organisms such as Golden Rice. Genetic engineering in animals improves growth rates, resistance to disease, and overall productivity. Biotechnology also uses fermentation in the production of foods like yogurt and bread, and enzymes in the processing of products like lactose-free milk. Tissue culture techniques make disease-free plants available, synthetic biology creates lab-grown meat, and bio-based ingredients. All these techniques have the same goal in mind: increasing efﬁciency, sustainability, and food quality. Advantages Disadvantages Improving Food Quality A Environmental Impact Genetically Modiﬁed Crops are engineered Potential crossbreeding between GMOs and to resist pests and diseases, reducing H B wild plants could disrupt ecosystems. chemical pesticide use. Over-reliance on herbicide-tolerant crops may lead to resistant weeds (superweeds). Enhancing Nutritional Content Golden Rice: Genetically modiﬁed to contain G C Health Concerns more Vitamin A, addressing malnutrition. Other Uncertainty about long-term health effects of GM Crops: Fortiﬁed with essential nutrients like consuming genetically modiﬁed foods. Risk of introducing new allergens into the food supply. vitamins, proteins, and amino acids. F D Economic Issues Increasing Crop Yield and Sustainability E High costs of developing and deploying Drought-Resistant Crops: Engineered to survive biotechnology may exclude small-scale with less water. Pest-Resistant Crops: Reduce farmers. Dependence on patented GMO seeds the need for chemical pesticides, ensuring can create ﬁnancial burdens for farmers. higher yields. Biofuel Production Biotechnology and genetic engineering are used in biofuel production by engineering microorganisms like bacteria and algae to convert organic materials into fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. GM crops like corn and sugarcane are also modiﬁed to produce higher biofuel yields. These technologies offer a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, reducing carbon emissions, but face challenges such as competition with food crops and environmental concerns. Advantages Disadvantages Sustainability A High Costs Biofuels are renewable and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, helping lower greenhouse gas H B The technology and infrastructure needed for biofuel production can be expensive, emissions. limiting its accessibility. Economic Growth The biofuel industry can create jobs and G C Energy-Intensive Process The biofuel industry can create jobs and promote agricultural innovation, beneﬁting local promote agricultural innovation, benefiting economies. F D local economies. Environmental Beneﬁts Biofuels can be cleaner, reducing air pollution and E Competition with Food Crops Using crops like corn and sugarcane for contributing to energy security. biofuels can reduce food supply and increase prices. Increased Eﬃciency Engineered microorganisms and crops can Water Usage produce higher yields of biofuels, making the Some biofuel crops require large amounts process more eﬃcient. of water, stressing local water resources. Waste Treatment Waste treatment with biotechnology and genetic engineering involves using biological organisms or engineered microbes to break down or transform pollutants into less harmful substances. These microbes can be designed to degrade harmful substances in soil, water, and air such as oil spills, plastics, and industrial chemicals. Techniques like bioremediation, enhanced wastewater management, and plastic degradation are some examples where biotechnology and genetic engineering make waste management more sustainable and cost-effective. Bioremediation Is the use of living organism to degrade or detoxify hazardous waste. Microorganisms naturally break down organic pollutants, and through genetic engineering improvements can be made that can improve the microbial eﬃciency through the introduction of genes that allow them to metabolize more complex or toxic pollutants. Plastic Waste Management Handling plastic waste has been a critical issue around the world for many years. Using biotechnology, researchers have created a brand-new kind of biocatalyst that can be used to degrade polyurethane and polyvinyl alcohol under moderate circumstances. Biotechnology can also be used to transform plastic waste into valuable goods like energy or new materials. Enzymes Biotechnology and genetic engineering have led to the development of enzymes that can be used in various applications to improve industrial processes, including waste treatment, food production, and environmental cleanup. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, and through genetic engineering, their properties can be optimized for speciﬁc tasks. Medical Research Food Production Enzymes play a vital role in medical research including A large amount of drinks and foods are dependent on drug development, disease treatment, and diagnosis. the reactions catalysed by enzymes. The They can also be applied to assay kits, such as coupled transformation of milk to cheese, grains to alcohol, multi-enzyme assay kits and enzyme-linked fruits to juice, and much more… These enzymes can be immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits, to conveniently used to produce food grade products while avoiding conduct tests and diagnosis. Enzymes are speciﬁc residues of harmful substances. Example of the use of biological catalysts which are used as desirable enzymes: For example, maltose is a disaccharide therapeutic agents for treatment of metabolic diseases composed of two units of glucose, which has many such as asparaginase and glutaminase are used to structurally similar isomers. Traditionally, it was almost treat leukaemia. impossible to separate maltose from its isomers, and a mixture of these isomers was used as one raw material, making quality control diﬃcult. Now, enzymes can speciﬁcally transform each isomer to different molecules, meeting different needs in ﬂavoring, nutrition, chemistry, and pharmaceuticals. Genetically Modiﬁed Organisms (GMOs) Genetically Modiﬁed Organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose DNA has been altered through biotechnology to express desired traits, such as improved resistance to pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, and enhanced nutritional content. Biotechnology involves the use of various scientiﬁc techniques, including genetic engineering and gene editing, to modify an organism’s genetic material at the molecular level. This enables the development of GMOs with speciﬁc, beneﬁcial characteristics that would not occur naturally. Genetic Modiﬁcation Animals Genetic Modiﬁcation of Crops Disease Resistance: Biotechnology can be used to develop Increased Yield: Genetic engineering allows the genetically modified animals that are resistant to diseases. introduction of genes that improve the productivity of crops An example is the AquAdvantage salmon, which has been by enhancing their resistance to diseases, pests, and engineered to grow faster than wild-type salmon by environmental stresses like drought or salinity. For example, introducing a growth hormone gene from another species. Bt cotton and Bt corn have been engineered to produce a Production of Biopharmaceuticals: Transgenic animals, protein toxic to certain pests, reducing the need for chemical like goats or cows, can be engineered to produce pesticides. pharmaceutical proteins in their milk, which can then be Improved Nutritional Content: Scientists can modify crops harvested and purified for medical treatments. to increase their nutritional value. Golden Rice, for example, has been engineered to produce higher levels of provitamin A (beta-carotene) to address vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. Herbicide Resistance: Crops like Roundup Ready soybeans have been modified to tolerate certain herbicides, allowing farmers to use herbicides to control weeds without harming the crops. Beneﬁts and Risks of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Beneﬁts Risks Increased Crop Yields: Biotechnology can create genetically Biodiversity Loss: GMOs could potentially outcompete wild modified (GM) crops with traits like pest resistance, drought species, leading to a reduction in biodiversity. For example, gene tolerance, and improved soil health, leading to higher agricultural flow from GM crops to wild relatives might result in the spread of productivity. undesirable traits, such as herbicide resistance. Reduced Pesticide Use: GM crops like Bt cotton and Bt corn are Unintended Effects: Genetic modifications may have unforeseen engineered to resist pests, reducing the need for chemical consequences on the environment. For example, engineered pesticides and lowering environmental impact. crops could alter soil health, affect non-target organisms (like Enhanced Nutritional Content: Genetic engineering can beneficial insects), or lead to the development of "superweeds." improve the nutritional value of crops. For example, Golden Rice Long-Term Effects: The long-term health effects of consuming is engineered to produce more vitamin A to combat malnutrition in genetically modified foods are still debated, and some argue that developing countries. more research is needed to fully understand the potential risks. Production of Pharmaceuticals: Genetically modified Manipulation of Life Forms: Genetic engineering raises ethical microorganisms (like bacteria and yeast) are used to produce therapeutic proteins, hormones, and vaccines. For example, questions about the extent to which humans should alter the insulin is produced by genetically engineered bacteria. genetic makeup of living organisms, especially animals and Gene Therapy: Biotechnology enables gene therapy, where humans. defective genes are corrected or replaced to treat genetic Herbicide Resistance: The widespread use of herbicide-resistant disorders, potentially curing diseases like cystic fibrosis or crops can encourage the overuse of herbicides, leading to the hemophilia. development of herbicide-resistant weeds. Bioremediation: Genetically modified microorganisms can help clean up pollutants like oil spills or heavy metals, offering a cost-effective and eco-friendly solution to environmental pollution. Evolution By: Murtaza And Biraze Evolution: Definition: Evolution is the process of which species of organisms change over time through variations and adaptations in order to increase their chances of survival and enhance reproduction. These changes can be influenced due to environmental pressure and genetic mutations. Examples of Evolution: Examples of evolution includes: Whales. In about 50 million years ago, they were dwelling-land mammals and were called the Pakicetus. This mammal had legs and was semi-aquatic and over time, began to favor traits such as streamlined bodies and flippers so that they could adapt fully to aquatic life, through the process of natural selection. (Will be explained in a later section of the presentation). Evidence 1:Biography One main piece of evidence that An example of biogeography is connects to evolution is Biogeography. that a certain bird, Darwin's This is the study of the patterns of Finches had multiple changes geographic distribution of species and on the Galapagos Island. ecosystems in a geographic space, and Finches evolved different types the factors that determine those of beak shapes depending on patterns. It also helps us understand the type of food that that they why certain species are found in one ate, regardless of them sharing place but not another. the same climate and habitat. This displays how species can change due to dietary pressure. Evidence 2: Fossils Why this is relevant to evolution is because Fossils are the preserved they provide evidence of how a certain remains of plants and animals species has changed over time, allowing whose bodies were buried in scientists to trace and analyse the sediments like sand, mud, or development of organisms through different under ancient seas, lakes, and layers, representing certain time periods. rivers. An example of this is Archaeopteryx, which essentially shows the transition of dinosaurs to modern bird species via the process of evolution, identifying transitional forms. EVIDENCE 3: Taxonomy Taxonomy is the scientific system of classifying living Example: Homo sapiens, the organisms into hierarchical groups based on shared species name for modern humans, characteristics. It reflects evolutionary relationships by illustrates taxonomy by grouping grouping species according to how closely they are humans with related species like related. This system provides strong evidence for Homo neanderthalensis based on evolution, as it demonstrates patterns of common shared traits such as advanced ancestry and divergence. cognition and bipedalism. This reflects evolutionary relationships and common ancestry.In addition, Bipedalism refers to the ability to walk on two legs. It is a characteristic of humans and some other animals, allowing for efficient movement on land. EVIDENCE 4: Comparative Anatomy and Evolutionary Vestiges Comparative Anatomy and Evolutionary Vestiges Comparative anatomy examines similarities in the structures of different organisms. Homologous Structures: Body parts with similar structures but different functions (e.g., human hands, bat wings,) suggest a common ancestor. Vestigial Structures: Remnants of once-functional features (e.g., human appendix, whale pelvis) indicate changes over generations as species adapted to new environments. The image compares the forelimbs of a human, dog, bird, and whale, which, despite serving different functions—grasping, running, flying, and swimming—share a similar bone structure. These similar structures are known as homologous structures, indicating that these species evolved from a common ancestor with a similar limb structure. Homologous structures are similar in structure but different in function, showing a common ancestry. Example: human arm, and whale flipper.Over time, through evolution and natural selection, their forelimbs adapted to suit their specific environments and functions. Evidence of Evolution 5: The fossil record provides the gradual progression of life through preserved remains in rock layers. It includes transitional fossils that highlight evolutionary steps, such as Archaeopteryx and Tiktaalik. ( Tiktaalik roseae is a 375 million year old fossil fish that was discovered in the Canadian Arctic in 2004. ) The record also reveals the increasing complexity of life and how species adapted to changing environments. Mass extinctions APRIL 12 and JUNE 23 evolutionary rebounds are documented, supporting the idea of gradual change and diversification over time. Embryo development is the process by which a fertilized egg grows, and develops into a fully formed organism. Natural Selection: What is natural selection? Natural selection is Evidence of natural selection:In England during the Industrial Revolution, Prior to industrialization, most moths were light-colored, the process where organisms with traits better suited to effectively camouflaged on lichen-covered trees. With increased their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, pollution from factories, the trees darkened and the moth population passing those traits to future generations. Over time, this shifted toward darker moths that better blended in with their leads to the accumulation of beneficial traits in a population, surroundings and were less likely to be eaten by birds. As time went driving evolution. on, more dark-colored moths survived and reproduced, becoming more abundant. This change in population size demonstrates how natural selection can result in a population's adaptation to its environment. Evidence 1: Genetics Genetics: Genetic variations in populations are passed down through generations, and advantageous traits that improve survival or reproduction become more common, demonstrating natural selection's role in evolution. What is genetics? Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to their children through genes. Evidence 2: Pesticide resistance in insects Pesticide Resistance in Insects: Insects can develop resistance to pesticides over time. When exposed to a pesticide, those with mutations that allow them to survive reproduce, passing on the resistance traits, which increases the frequency of resistant insects in future generations. Pesticide resistance in insects: Pesticide resistance in insects is when insects stop being affected by pesticides because they adapt and pass on survival traits to their young. THANKS Do you have any questions? [email protected] +91 620 421 838 yourcompany.com CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, including icons by Flaticon, and infographics & images by Freepik Please keep this slide for attribution

Reproduction and Inheritance Year 10 Integrated Science PDF

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