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Week 2: Art of the 20th Century, By Paul Wood 1. Introduction: Two Snapshots of Art in 1900 and 2000 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris: ○ The event showcased art from 29 countries, reflecting the established genres and traditional academic art. ○ Artworks p...

Week 2: Art of the 20th Century, By Paul Wood 1. Introduction: Two Snapshots of Art in 1900 and 2000 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris: ○ The event showcased art from 29 countries, reflecting the established genres and traditional academic art. ○ Artworks predominantly followed classical traditions, dating back to the Renaissance and earlier. ○ Genres: History painting, portraiture, landscapes, still life, and the nude were common subjects. ○ Despite the presence of avant-garde works (e.g., Impressionism), traditional art dominated. 2000 Tate Modern, London: ○ Marked a sharp contrast with 1900: exhibits now included installations, video art, and conceptual pieces. ○ Modern art was characterized by a radical departure from traditional painting and sculpture. ○ Notable artists: Damien Hirst, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin—work showcased art beyond classical representation. Key Insight: In just a century, art transitioned from classical forms to abstract, conceptual, and postmodern works. 2. The Challenge of Writing Art History Scope of Modern Art: The rapid evolution of 20th-century art makes writing its history challenging. It includes: ○ Avant-garde movements like Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism that broke away from classical traditions. ○ Diverse media such as installations, video art, and digital formats. Art Historians’ Debate: Should the focus remain on traditional forms like painting and sculpture, or should more experimental forms be included? 3. Modernity and Modernism Modernity: A concept introduced by Charles Baudelaire, referring to the experience of living in a rapidly changing, urbanized world. ○ Emphasizes the fleeting, fragmented, and fast-paced nature of modern life. ○ Example: Impressionist paintings by artists like Pissarro and Delacroix that capture this transient feeling through dabs of color and blurred forms.  Modernism: Refers to the response of art to modern life but focuses on its autonomy—art for art's sake, independent of real-world depictions. ○ Pablo Picasso: A central figure in modernism who continued to push the boundaries of painting and sculpture. ○ Key movements: Abstract art and Cubism represent a shift away from realistic representation toward form and color. 4. Avant-Garde vs. Tradition Avant-Garde Movements: These sought to challenge and transform traditional forms of art, often embracing radical ideas like abstraction, randomness, and the use of everyday objects. ○ Marcel Duchamp: Credited as the father of postmodernism, he introduced the concept of "readymades" (e.g., his famous Fountain), questioning the boundaries of art. Symbiotic Relationship: While avant-garde movements often positioned themselves against the Academy, they were still influenced by the discourse and structures of traditional art. 5. Mid-20th Century: From Modernism to Postmodernism Post-War Modernism: After World War II, art underwent dramatic changes with the rise of Abstract Expressionism in America (e.g., Jackson Pollock). ○ This movement emphasized the artist’s internal emotions and the process of painting itself, breaking from earlier traditions. Shift to Postmodernism: By the late 1960s, minimalism, Pop Art, and conceptual art emerged, challenging the notions of what art could be. ○ Artists like Andy Warhol and Donald Judd embraced industrial materials and consumer culture in their work, departing from modernist ideals of individual expression and unique form. 6. Theoretical Shifts in Art Criticism Clement Greenberg: A key critic who championed modernism, particularly the idea that art should focus on its own medium (e.g., painting emphasizing flatness and form). ○ Greenbergian Modernism: Art should be autonomous, not dependent on external narratives or images of the real world.  Critiques of Greenberg: By the 1970s, critics like Rosalind Krauss argued that this formalist view was too narrow. She advocated for a broader understanding of modernism, eventually contributing to the rise of postmodern theory. 7. Postmodernism and Contemporary Art Postmodern Art: Artists like Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns blurred the boundaries between art and life, introducing objects and materials from everyday life into their works. ○ Rauschenberg's Combine Paintings: A significant example of postmodernism, merging painting and sculpture with non-traditional objects (e.g., Monogram, which included a stuffed goat). End of Modernism: The 1970s and 80s saw the definitive shift from modernist abstraction to a more diverse and pluralistic art world, marked by installations, performance art, and political art. 8. Conclusion: The Open Boundaries of 20th Century Art The 20th century saw art expand beyond traditional media into new, experimental forms. Artists increasingly engaged with contemporary issues such as politics, consumerism, and identity. The boundaries of what constitutes art have continually shifted, making it a more inclusive and fluid concept. Key Figures and Movements to Remember 1. Pablo Picasso: A leader in modernism; challenged academic art through Cubism and abstraction. 2. Marcel Duchamp: Introduced "readymades"; key figure in the transition to postmodernism. 3. Jackson Pollock: Abstract Expressionist who emphasized the physical process of painting. 4. Andy Warhol: Pop artist who explored consumerism and mass production. 5. Clement Greenberg: Theorist of modernism who focused on art’s formal qualities. Exam Tips  Understand the distinction between Modernism and Postmodernism: Modernism focuses on autonomy and form, while postmodernism embraces pluralism, everyday objects, and societal critique. Key movements: Be familiar with major 20th-century movements, including Cubism, Abstract Expressionism, and Pop Art. Theory matters: Study the role of critics like Greenberg and Krauss in shaping art historical discourse. Week 3: Barnett Newman's Eve 1. Introduction to Abstract Art and Eve Artist Overview: Barnett Newman, an American artist born in 1905, played a pivotal role in abstract expressionism. He created Eve in 1950, a significant moment in the history of abstract art. Artwork Significance: Eve represents more than just an abstract painting; it reflects crucial questions about the relationship between art and the spectator. Newman's work is unique because it challenges traditional concepts of painting, moving beyond representation to focus on the experience of the viewer​. Key Themes: The chapter raises questions about how art is experienced and whether that experience is universally consistent or dependent on the specific context and medium. 2. Abstract Painting: A New Language 20th Century Abstract Art: Abstract art became a distinguishing feature of modern Western art. However, for much of the century, it was synonymous with terms like "incomprehensible" or "meaningless." Artists like Jackson Pollock and Mark Rothko helped abstract art gain more public appreciation by the late 1940s. Key Figures: The abstract movement was heavily influenced by Wassily Kandinsky, Kasimir Malevich, and Piet Mondrian, who explored art without a direct resemblance to the visible world. Kandinsky coined the term "abstract expressionism," while Malevich called his work "non-objective," indicating it was derived from internal rather than external sources​. 3. Understanding Newman's Eve Viewing Eve: Newman's Eve is difficult to appreciate through reproduction alone. Standing in front of the actual piece, a viewer would be more aware of its sheer size (239 x 172 cm) and texture. The large red canvas with a narrow vertical maroon band on the right side creates an immersive experience​​. Interpretation Challenge: Eve lacks detailed imagery, which leads to questions about its meaning. Newman’s goal was not to offer direct answers but to allow the viewer to  engage deeply with the abstract qualities of the painting, prompting a more personal interpretation​. 4. Abstract Expressionism and the New York School Group and Style: Newman, along with Pollock and Rothko, was part of the "New York School" in the 1940s. Their collective style became known as abstract expressionism. This period marked the dominance of American artists in modern art​. Philosophy: The abstract artists of this group moved away from European rationalism and preferred irrational or anti-rational approaches, often influenced by Surrealism and its focus on the unconscious​. 5. Two Justifications for Abstract Art Outward Justification (Essence): Mondrian, for instance, viewed abstract art as a reduction of external reality to its essential forms, often employing geometrical principles to achieve a fundamental artistic expression. Inward Justification (Expression): In contrast, artists like Kandinsky emphasized the expression of internal necessity. This approach to abstract art focuses on the emotional or spiritual content rather than representing physical reality​. 6. The Sublime and the Abstract Sublime vs. Beautiful: Newman's work, like Rothko's, has been described as evoking the "sublime," an aesthetic category distinct from beauty. Where beauty is tied to harmony, the sublime is about awe and terror. Abstract art like Newman's Eve attempts to elicit this deeper emotional response​. 7. Eve and Adam in Context Pairing with Adam: Newman later painted Adam (1951), often paired with Eve. While Eve is dominated by a bright red field, Adam has a darker composition. Together, these works evoke mythological themes without directly representing them​. Philosophical Grounding: Newman believed that abstract art taps into a deeper human instinct to create. His essay, "The First Man Was an Artist," explains that human creativity, which he likens to the biblical Adam’s role, is at the heart of understanding the purpose of art​​. 8. The Viewer’s Role Engagement with Abstract Art: Viewers of abstract works like Eve are not given clear symbols or representations. Instead, the viewer must engage with the emotional and spatial effects of the painting. Newman's goal was to evoke a direct, non-referential experience of art​.  Challenging Traditional Art: Unlike figurative painting, where meaning is often derived from recognizable subjects, Newman's abstract work asks viewers to find meaning in the formal elements, such as color, space, and texture​. Conclusion Barnett Newman's Eve is a pivotal example of mid-20th century abstract art that challenges conventional methods of painting and interpretation. It serves as both an artistic statement and a philosophical reflection on the role of the artist and the experience of art. Newman's focus on abstraction, the sublime, and the viewer’s engagement with non-representational art reveals a shift in modern art towards deeper emotional and spatial exploration. This study guide serves as an overview of the key themes and concepts from the chapter, helping students better understand the intricacies of abstract art, Newman's contributions, and the broader art historical context in which he worked. Week 4: Marcel Duchamp and Interpreting the Readymade Introduction to the Readymade Marcel Duchamp coined the term "readymade" to describe ordinary manufactured objects that he transformed into art simply by choosing them. Key Objects: ○ Bottlerack (1914) – A mass-produced bottle-drying rack that Duchamp intended as art. ○ Bicycle Wheel (1913) – A bicycle wheel mounted on a stool, one of his first readymades. ○ In Advance of the Broken Arm (1915) – A snow shovel marked with a title, further expanding the concept. Loss of Originals: Many original works, including Bottlerack, were lost. What we see today are replicas. The historical significance and status of these objects as art arose after Duchamp retrospectively assigned them titles and meanings. The Readymade as Conceptual Art Duchamp’s readymades challenged traditional ideas about what constitutes art. The focus shifted from craftsmanship to idea and choice. Key Aspect: The readymade involves the selection of an object rather than its creation. Duchamp detached the process of art from manual skill, emphasizing that art could be defined through intellectual selection. Historical and Theoretical Context  Influence on 20th-Century Art: Duchamp’s readymades have had a lasting influence on modern art, setting precedents for conceptual art movements. Artists began seeing everyday objects as potential art, altering the course of avant-garde practices. Duchamp's influence rivals that of Picasso, as his ideas reshaped the role of art in society by breaking boundaries between art and ordinary objects. Duchamp's Artistic Background Raised in an artistic family with connections to Cubism through his brothers Jacques Villon and Raymond Duchamp-Villon. Early Work: His early paintings, influenced by Cézanne and Cubism, led to Nude Descending a Staircase (1912), which explored movement in a static medium. Break from Tradition: Duchamp’s dissatisfaction with Cubism and conventional painting led to his shift toward conceptual art. Key Themes in Duchamp’s Work 1. Rejection of Aesthetic Pleasure: Duchamp wanted to escape from the idea of art for the eye ("retinal art") and create works that stimulated the mind. 2. Role of the Spectator: Duchamp believed the viewer played a role in completing the work of art through interpretation. The physical object was less important than the viewer’s engagement with the idea behind it. 3. The Mechanization of Art: His interest in machines and industrial objects reflected a fascination with removing personal expression from art, as seen in The Large Glass. The Importance of Title and Presentation Duchamp gave cryptic, often humorous titles to his readymades (e.g., "In Advance of the Broken Arm") to shift their context from functionality to art. Context matters: An object like Fountain (1917) (a urinal) only becomes art when exhibited in a gallery and labeled as such. Philosophical Implications Aesthetic Judgement Post-Duchamp: After Duchamp, art criticism shifted from asking "Is it beautiful?" to "Is it art?" (as argued by Thierry de Duve). This reflects a broader interrogation of what qualifies as art in the modern world. Institutionalization of the Readymade: Duchamp's work questioned how museums and galleries grant objects their status as art, often through institutional backing rather than inherent qualities. Legacy and Impact on Contemporary Art Conceptual Art: Duchamp’s notion that the idea behind the work is more important than the object itself influenced movements such as Dada, Pop Art, and Minimalism.  Art as Thought: Duchamp redefined the role of the artist, making intellectual creativity, rather than manual skill, the hallmark of artistic production. Discussion Points for Further Study 1. What does it mean for an object to become art solely through the artist’s choice? 2. How does the presentation of a readymade in a gallery change the way we perceive it? 3. To what extent does the institutional context (museums, galleries) influence the classification of something as art? Week 5: Ann Reynolds Chapter on Minimalism Introduction to Minimalism Minimalism emerged in the mid-1960s, a critical period for the art world where conventional forms of aesthetic categorization were being challenged. It was described by various terms like "ABC art," "cool art," or "literal art." Minimalism questioned the boundaries between art and non-art, often blurring the distinctions between traditional categories like painting and sculpture. Clement Greenberg criticized minimalism for focusing too much on the boundary between art and non-art, claiming it lacked aesthetic surprise and was a feat of ideation rather than artistic discovery. Key Concepts and Critiques 1. Reduction of Form: ○ Minimalism was often seen as a reduction of art to its most essential forms. Artists like Donald Judd and Dan Flavin created works featuring simple, geometric shapes and repeated structures. These works seemed to reject the emotional and expressive elements of earlier movements like Abstract Expressionism. 2. Phenomenal Experience: ○ Critics like Rosalind Krauss and Barbara Rose argued that minimalism shifted the focus from the internal meaning of an artwork to the external experience of it. Minimalist art invited viewers to engage physically with the artwork, recognizing its presence in the same space as themselves. This interaction was essential to understanding the work. 3. Rejection of Traditional Categories: ○ Minimalist works often defied categorization as either painting or sculpture. For example, Judd’s work was considered "specific objects", which stood apart  from traditional art forms by focusing on their presence as objects rather than representations of something else. Key Artists and Works 1. Carl Andre: Known for works like Crib, Compound, and Coin (1965), made from simple materials like styrofoam planks arranged in modular forms. These works emphasized the spatial relationships between the objects and the viewer. 2. Donald Judd: Created works like Untitled (1966), a set of six cubic galvanized iron boxes hung on the wall with precise intervals. Judd's work exemplified the minimalist focus on geometric simplicity, with an emphasis on materiality and the arrangement of objects in space. 3. Dan Flavin: Famous for his use of unadorned fluorescent tubes, as seen in Greens Crossing Greens (1966), which created a luminous, yet stark, interaction with the surrounding space. 4. Sol LeWitt: Known for his cubic frameworks, such as Floor Structure Black (1965), LeWitt’s work used repetition and simplicity to engage viewers in a spatial experience. Minimalism and its Legacy Minimalism left a lasting legacy by confronting modernist ideas about discrete media practices and challenging the relationship between art and the burgeoning consumer culture of advanced capitalism. Hal Foster described minimalism as embodying a “crux of aesthetic interpretation” during the 1960s, which engaged both high art traditions and the commercialized, media-driven culture of the time. Key Themes in Minimalism 1. Materiality and Space: ○ Minimalist artists were less interested in traditional craftsmanship or intricate details. Instead, they focused on how their works interacted with space, with many pieces consisting of industrial materials and being created in ways that seemed machine-made, even if they were not. 2. Viewer Engagement: ○ Minimalist works required the viewer’s physical engagement. The experience of the artwork was not merely visual but spatial and temporal, as the viewer moved around or between the objects. 3. Critique of the Art Object:  ○ Minimalism challenged the very notion of what constituted an art object. Works were often designed to emphasize their objecthood and their presence as physical things in the world, as opposed to being representations of something else. Critical Responses Michael Fried criticized minimalism for being "theatrical," arguing that minimalist art’s reliance on viewer interaction detracted from its artistic integrity. He claimed that such works were more about the situation in which they were experienced rather than the art itself. Clement Greenberg echoed similar sentiments, arguing that minimalism was overly concerned with intellectual ideas rather than aesthetic experience. Conclusion Minimalism marked a turning point in modern art, moving away from traditional notions of expression and representation. It foregrounded the physicality of objects, their arrangement in space, and the viewer's bodily experience. While it faced criticism for its perceived lack of emotional depth or aesthetic complexity, its influence on later movements like conceptual art and installation art remains undeniable. Week 6: Who Were the Brain Police Conceptual Art, Godfrey, Tony Conceptual Art Overview Conceptual Art focuses more on ideas or concepts than on creating a physical art object. This movement gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, reacting against the commodification of art and exploring the boundaries of what constitutes art. The emphasis is often on intellectual engagement over visual appeal. Key features include: Dematerialization of the art object: Art that exists more as an idea than a physical entity. Use of language: Many conceptual artists incorporated language as their primary medium, reflecting dissatisfaction with traditional visual art forms. Political and social critique: Conceptual art often critiques consumerism, war, politics, and society, reflecting the tumultuous social climate of the 1960s. Key Artists and Their Contributions 1. Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention ○ Their album covers and songs like Who Are the Brain Police? and We're Only In It For The Money reflect critiques of consumerism and the absurdities of modern life. Zappa’s satirical work was emblematic of the cultural rebellion of the 1960s, echoing themes of alienation and propaganda discussed by Herbert Marcuse in One-Dimensional Man. 2. Mel Bochner ○ Bochner was an early conceptual artist who explored serialism—artworks consisting of repeated elements that questioned traditional notions of the masterpiece. In his words, “the concept is more important than the final object.” 3. Sol LeWitt ○ Famous for his phrase, "The idea becomes a machine that makes the art," LeWitt's work was pivotal in conceptual art. His wall drawings and use of instructions over physical execution pushed the boundary of art as something that could exist independently of the artist's physical hand. 4. Roman Opalka ○ Known for his obsessive project of counting towards infinity in his series of paintings, Opalka’s work symbolized the passage of time. Each subsequent painting became slightly whiter, a metaphor for the fading of life. 5. On Kawara ○ Kawara's Date Paintings and telegrams (I Am Still Alive) emphasize the documentation of time and presence. His work questions identity and existence, as seen in his refusal to be photographed or interviewed. 6. Carl Andre ○ Unlike LeWitt, Andre was critical of conceptual art when it became too detached from the physical world. He believed art should be close to nature and rejected the intellectualization of art in favor of its materiality. 7. Lawrence Weiner ○ Weiner’s art was primarily text-based, existing as instructions or phrases like A Removal to the Lathing or Support Wall of Plaster or Wallboard from a Wall. His work focused on the relationship between materials and viewers, often questioning the necessity of physical creation. Major Themes in Conceptual Art 1. Critique of Consumer Society ○ Many artists rejected traditional art forms in response to the rise of consumerism and the commodification of art. This is especially evident in the work of Frank  Zappa, Joseph Kosuth, and others who used irony and minimalism to critique material culture. 2. Use of Language as Art ○ Artists like Joseph Kosuth and Robert Barry shifted the focus from physical art objects to ideas conveyed through language. Kosuth’s famous statement, “art is the definition of art,” challenges traditional boundaries of artistic practice. 3. Minimalism and Anti-Form ○ Sculptors like Richard Long and Robert Smithson embraced natural materials and process-based art, where the act of creation itself became the focus. Anti-form challenged the finished, polished art object, highlighting decay, impermanence, and organic materials. 4. Seriality and Process ○ The use of repetitive forms and processes (e.g., Mel Bochner’s serial works or Sol LeWitt’s systematic wall drawings) emphasized the idea over the execution. This broke with the idea of the singular masterpiece and shifted focus to the creative process itself. 5. Political and Social Commentary ○ Conceptual art often engaged with political issues of the time. Country Joe and the Fish at Woodstock exemplify how art became a vehicle for social rebellion. Arte Povera in Italy, a movement that utilized humble materials, also aimed to critique the excesses of industrial society. Important Concepts in Conceptual Art Dematerialization: The reduction of art to its conceptual essence. This is a key element, particularly in works like Robert Barry's Closed Gallery, where no physical artwork was presented. Operational Language: Borrowed from Herbert Marcuse, this idea suggests that language in society (and art) serves more to produce results than to convey truth. Interventions: Conceptual artists frequently disrupted traditional exhibitions and public spaces, making the environment or the process part of the artwork, such as Daniel Buren's site-specific stripe paintings. Practical Applications of Conceptual Art Breaking Artistic Norms: Conceptual art encourages thinking beyond traditional media, inspiring artists to use non-traditional materials, language, and everyday objects as valid forms of artistic expression. Political and Social Reflection: Conceptual art often invites viewers to reflect critically on the political, social, and economic systems around them.  Engagement with Time and Process: Artists like On Kawara and Roman Opalka show how art can be a meditation on time, existence, and the creative process itself. Conclusion Conceptual art remains one of the most intellectually challenging and transformative movements in modern art. It pushes the boundaries of what art can be, questioning the role of the artist, the function of the art object, and the nature of artistic communication. Understanding conceptual art requires engaging not just with visual elements but with the ideas that underpin them. This guide provides a summary of key points, but further exploration of the artists' works and texts will provide a deeper understanding of their practices and contributions to Conceptual Art.