RDA Qualitative Research Notes Week 1 PDF

**[Prediction vs Understanding]** Research focused on prediction explains **what will happen** based on previous events and research focused on understanding explains **why what has happened has happened.** **[Nomothetic vs Idiographic]** Nomo(law)thetic seeks **general** explanations/ understand...

**[Prediction vs Understanding]** Research focused on prediction explains **what will happen** based on previous events and research focused on understanding explains **why what has happened has happened.** **[Nomothetic vs Idiographic]** Nomo(law)thetic seeks **general** explanations/ understandings for a **large number** of cases/ a class of events. It relates to the study or discovery of general scientific laws (as opposed to dealing with things case by case). Often contrasted with idiographic. It seeks to predict future occurrences, therefore researcher needs larger sample sizes. Quantitative data is more suitable and manageable. Trade depth for generality. Idio(unique, distinct, peculiar)graphic seeks **in-depth** explanations/ understandings of **individual cases**, in-depth analysis. It relates to the study or discovery of particular scientific laws, as distinct from general laws. It seeks a deeper and detailed understanding. Requires "thicker" descriptive data (qualitative). Smaller, manageable sample. Trade generality for depth. **[Inductive vs Deductive]** Inductive- research moves from the **particular to the general.** For example, from specific/particular observation which form a pattern/theory. **Observation-pattern-tentative hypothesis-theory. Qualitative.** Deductive- research moves from the **general/theory/pattern to the particular/specific. Theory- hypothesis-observation-confirmation. Quantitative.** **[Quantitative vs Qualitative]** **Quantitative** is when data is expressed in numbers and **qualitative** is when data is expressed in words. Quantitative research is just one approach to science; manipulating, measuring and specifying relationships between certain variables in order to test hypothesis about causal laws. On the other hand **qualitative research lays down its claims to acceptance by arguing for the importance of understanding meaning of events, actions and experience as these are interpreted through the eyes of particular participants, researchers and (sub) cultures, and for a sensitivity to the complexity of behaviour and meaning in the contexts where they typically or "naturally" occur.** **[Definitions of qualitative research]** **Quality** is a measure of relative value, but based on an evaluation of the general character or intrinsic nature of what we are assessing. **Qualitative research can thus be seen as** descriptive research attempts to describe phenomena as they exist rather than to manipulate variables. Qualitative research is the interpretative study of a specified issue or problem in which **the researcher is central to the sense that is made.** Qualitative psychology is part of a **debate, not fixed truth.** Qualitative research is **an attempt to capture the sense that lies within and that structures what we say;** an exploration, elaboration and systematization of the significance of an identified phenomenon. **[Common features of Qualitative Research]** A. **[Description]** 'Thick' description- A thorough, comprehensive description of the phenomenon under study is necessary. Should include the researchers feelings and thoughts as well as 'objective information' such as what was seen. B. **[Context]** Research occurs in everyday contexts (vs laboratories/ experimental conditions). Take into account the wider social, political, cultural and historical contexts as well. **Immersion-** the researcher must immerse him/herself into the study in order to really be a part of and 'understand' the research environment on as many levels as possible. Power relations are seen to have very real effects. C. **[Meaning]** Qualitative research searches for meaningful characterisations of social phenomena. Takes this into account when describing, interpretating and explaining human behaviour. Research becomes 're-search'- looking again for the meanings of lived experience which ordinarily pass us by. Involves 'seeing through the eyes of' or taking the subjects perspective. Meaning is mediated through language and action and resides in social practice. Social phenomena are **'concept-dependent'**- they are unavoidably affected by the meanings ascribed to them. D. **[Interpretation]** Interpretation is how 'I' see the world. Quantitative research tries to screen out interpretation and produce objective, unmediated accounts of phenomena. Qualitative research believes this is impossible. Representations of the world are always interpreted/ mediated. Interpretation is not what we do but what we are. Interpretation is the **BRIDGE** between reality and our understanding of reality. There is always a **GAP** between things we want to understand and our accounts of what they are. **'Surplus of meaning'**- Interpretation/ meaning is 'unstable' and changes in relation to our changing understanding of the world. There is always more to be added, different points of view to be incorporated. E. **[Truth]** The notion of 'truth' is called into question by qualitative methods. Any single account/ explanation of an event/ phenomenon is 'questionable/incomplete' because the account is governed by one's context/history. Research is done by people about people. The account is based on the researchers interpretation. Therefore qualitative study is NOT ONLY focused on a particular phenomenon or subjects' opinions/ accounts BUT ALSO the intentions, motivations and beliefs of **the researcher.** **Reflexive-** the researcher is central to the findings of the study, and thus must 'reflect' on him/herself and the process. **Fidelity-** the researcher must be committed to presenting as 'true' a representation of the phenomenon under study as possible. F. **[Process]** Meaning is negotiable- It changes and evolves over time. Therefore there's need to examine the ways in which meaning changes/ is sustained. The researcher continually revisits the data, seeking clarification and confirmation of understanding and new nuances of meaning. Research is thus a **cyclical/ non-linear process.** The researcher goes in, looks around, generates some ideas, goes back, looks for evidence to dis/prove his/her theory, modifies his/her existing theory, generates new theory, and repeats. Therefore, there are no pre-ordinate assumptions. Theories/ assumptions/ hypotheses brought into the research context. Instead theory is expected to **Emerge** as the investigation proceeds, this is called an **Emergent Design**. There are few/no prior hypotheses/ definitions and data collection is relatively 'unstructured'. **[The quantitative-qualitative divide]** Carves up the field of social and psychological research as allegedly separate and **internally coherent** approaches to research and theory. Quantitative Qualitative ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Involves testing of hypotheses that the researcher begins with. **Capture and discovery of meaning** once the researcher becomes immersed in the data. Concepts are in the form of distinct variables. Concepts are in the form of **themes, motifs, generalizations, taxonomies** Measures are systematically created before data collection and are standardised. Measures are **created in an ad hoc manner** and are often **specific to the individual setting or researcher.** Data is in the form of numbers from precise measurement. Data is in the form of **words** from **documents, observations, transcripts.** Theory is largely causal and deductive. Theory can be **causal or non-causal**, and is often **inductive**. Procedures are standard, and replication is assumed. Procedures are **particular** and **replication is very rare.** Analysis proceeds through statistics, tables and charts and discussing how what they show relate to hypotheses. Analysis proceeds by **extracting themes or generalizations from evidence** and organising data to present a coherent, consistent picture. **[Definitions revisited]** Commonality of definitions: most definitions, at some stage or another, **examine/compare qualitative methods against quantitative methods.** Qualitative research emerged in psychology only fairly recently, as an array of alternative approaches to those in the mainstream, and it is difficult to define, explain and illustrate qualitative research without counterposing it to those methods in psychology that rest upon quantification. Defining qualitative methodology is thus almost always an exercise in 'negative definition'- **one inevitably begins by stating what qualitative methodology is not.** It is for this reason that understanding quantitative methodology, its assumptions and methods, is crucial. It is equally important to understand that **qualitative methodology arose as a criticism of quantitative methodology,** and was developed as a response to certain problematic issues of quantitative methodology. **[The Development of Qualitative Research]** Psychology was initially defines as the 'science of the mind'. Like other branches of science it followed the **hypothetico-deductive model** of research. Psychology thus aimed at discovering the laws/theory that governed the relationships between causes and effects. Psychology embraced the empirical testing of hypotheses (deductive logic) by quantitative methods- if the theory was proven incorrect it was rejected; if correct, accepted as truth. As hypotheses were tested, the theory was adjusted as necessary to accommodate new facts as they arose through experimentation. In this way it was thought that eventually all false theories would be rejected and truth obtained. This approach dominated the 20^th^ century, and it does in fact work for the physical sciences. The scientific method is considered to be superior to the other methods of acquiring knowledge because it allows us to make 'objective' observations of phenomena and thereby allows us to establish the superiority of one belief over the other. HOWEVER the 'scientific approach' was not without its problems within psychology: e.g. ecological validity, ethical issues, volunteer characteristics, language and understanding, etc. Parker (1994) summarised these problems into what he termed 'the three methodological horrors'. The three horrors tend to revolve around the issues of context, meaning and interpretation i.e., THE GAP between reality and the way it is perceived/ captured/ described, between objects and their representations. This GAP is **un**acknowledged by science (& quantitative methodology) which attempts to give the 'illusion' of prediction and control. In fact the history of quantitative research in psychology can be viewed as a catalogue of attempts to wish the gap away. Qualitative research, on the other hand, makes a concerted effort to **deal with each of these issues,** and has built-in processes which acknowledge the existence of the gap, and attempts to bridge it. Unlike quantitative research which works against the gap, **qualitative research works with it.** In this way, it is argued that **qualitative research addresses the problems posed by the scientific method.** The 'crisis' in psychology by the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s was an expression of an awareness of the impossibility of dealing with interpretation by attempting to supress it. This marked the 'birth' of the qualitative methodology. **[The Three Methodological Horrors]** 1. **Indexicality:** The idea that **explanations are always tied to particular occasions or uses** and **will change with occasions** (time) **and context.** Qualitative researchers admit that their work is **never perfectly replicable**, and include an **account of the changes over time in their report.** Qualitative methods **embrace specificity** rather than generalisability and replicability, and **emphasise the importance of context.** Qualitative research aims to **describe a specific context,** rather than formulating general rules (idiographic). 2. **Inconcludability:** The idea that **an account is always incomplete;** it can always be supplemented and will mutate as it is added to. Qualitative methods welcome **openness and change** and the opportunity for others to supplement an account. Qualitative results are always **provisional.** Qualitative research aims to tell a **plausible** story, rather than a complete one. 3. **Reflexivity:** The idea that the **way we characterise a phenomenon** will change the way it operates for us, and that will change our perception of the phenomenon, which will change our characterisation. Qualitative methods treat **subjectivity as a resource** rather than a problem. An 'objective account' cannot be achieved, **the researcher cannot pretend to be neutral.** S/he must interact, and **acknowledge the interaction,** must know him/herself. Through exploring the role of the researcher's subjectivity in structuring the phenomena under investigation, one can however, achieve a **fairly plausible, thorough, and well-rounded account.** **[Collecting Data in Qualitative Research]** **Nature of the data-** Researchers may use **observations, interviews, objects, written documents, audio-visual material, email messages, internet websites or anything else** that can help answer the research question. **Emerging design-** the kind of data collected early in the investigation often influences the kind of data the researcher subsequently gathers. Researchers should **record** any potentially useful data accurately, thoroughly and systematically using **field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs or a combination of these.** All data collection should adhere to ethical guidelines e.g., informed consent, confidentiality, etc. **[Sampling]** **Sampling** is the process of selecting people/ participants for the study. A **sample** is the particular people that have been selected for analysis. Identifying your sample depends on the research question/s that you want to answer. If the purpose is to draw **inferences** about an entire population or body of objects, the sample is presumed to **represent** that population or body of objects. **Qualitative sampling**- purposeful sampling: Involves selecting individuals or objects that will yield the most information about the topic that is being investigated. **[Observations]** The researcher may make observations either as a **relative outsider** or as a **participant observer.** Observations are intentionally **unstructured and free flowing. Disadvantages:** Researcher may not know the most important things to look for, may waste time; The presence of the researcher may influence what people say and do, may change how significant events unfold. **[Different Forms of Data Collection]** A. **[Observations ]** Some suggestions when conducting observations: 1. Before you begin your study, experiment with various data recording strategies. 2. When you begin your observations, have someone introduce you to the people you are watching. 3. During observation, remain relatively quiet and inconspicuous, yet be friendly to anyone who approaches you. 4. If you are taking field notes, consider dividing your pages or processing documents into two columns. Left column for recording observations and the right one to write your preliminary interpretations. 5. Do not confuse your actual observations with your interpretations of them. B. **[Interviews]** Interviews have the potential to yield a lot of useful information. Researchers can ask any questions related to anything including: facts, peoples beliefs and perspectives about facts, feelings, motives, past and present behaviours, standards of behaviour, conscious reasons for feelings or actions. **Characteristics of an interview:** - Interviews are rarely structured (limiting). - Interviews can be either **open-ended or semi-structured.** - **Unstructured-** interviews are more flexible and more likely to yield information that the researcher hadn't planned to ask for but may lead to different responses from participants which cannot be compared. - Peoples **memories are subject to considerable distortion,** therefore researchers should seek to substantiate participant's introspective reports with observations of their behaviour and other relevant data. **Focus groups-** Researcher gathers several people to discuss a particular issue for 2 to 3 hours. Moderator- may or may not be the researcher, introduces the topic to be discussed, makes sure no one dominates the discussion, keeps people focused on the topic. When to use focus groups: When there is limited time, when group members are comfortable with sharing information, when group interaction is more informative than individually conducted interviews. **Conducting a productive interview:** - Identify some questions in advance - Consider how participants' **cultural backgrounds** may influence their response - Make sure interviews are representative of the group - Find a suitable location - Get **written permission** - Establish and maintain **rapport** - Focus on the actual rather than on the abstract or hypothetical - Do not put words into people's mouths - Record responses **verbatim** - Keep your reactions to yourself - Remember that you are not necessarily getting facts - When conducting focus groups, take group dynamics into account. **[Using Technology in Qualitative Research]** Includes technological aids in transcribing, collecting and organising/analysing data. 1. **Transcribing Data** **Software** helps make recording or interviewing tasks easier and less time consuming. May also be used for transcribing. For example hypertranscribe, enables the researcher to **mark key points** in the video or audio interview, **retrieve desired pieces** of information quickly, and **slow down** what you have recorded so that it is easier to transcribe. 2. **Data Collection** Interviews can be done at long distance using internet mechanisms for example email, instant messaging and video conferencing (zoom, teams). Ethical guidelines must still be adhered to even when conducting interviews in the cyberspace/online. 3. **Organising and Analysing Data** There is no single 'right' way of analysing the data in a qualitative study (i.e. manual or electronic software). Data analysis and interpretation are closely interwoven, and both are enmeshed with data collection as well. Using the **data analysis spiral**, you go through the data several times taking the following steps: - Organize the data perhaps using index cards, manila folders or a computer database. Breaking large units into smaller ones - Peruse the entire data set several times to get a sense of what it contains as a whole. Jotting down preliminary interpretations. - Identify general categories and themes, and perhaps subcategories and subthemes, and classify each piece of data accordingly. Finding meanings in the data. - Integrate and summarise the data for your readers. Offering hypotheses or propositions. Constructing tables, diagrams and hierarchies. Interpretation of the data will inevitably be influenced by the researchers biases and values to some extent, reflecting the **researcher as an instrument.** The researcher should try to minimize the extent to which prior expectations and opinions enter the **final analysis** by using some of the following strategies: - Collect **two or more different kinds of data** related to any particular phenomenon (triangulation) - Get **multiple or varying perspectives** on any single issue or vent - Make an effort to **look for evidence that contradicts your assumptions** - In your **final research report, acknowledge any biases** you have so that the reader can take them into account when reading the report. **[Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation]** Software programs capable of complex qualitative research studies include **Atlas.Ti, ethnograph and superhyperqual.** Such programs provide a means of **storing, segmenting and organizing** lengthy field notes, and they are designed to help you find patterns in your notes. Mastering these programs is time consuming, but (bear in mind) learning how to use them effectively is likely to save you time in the long run. **Always backup files** on a flash drive or other external storage device that you store in a safe location.