Quiz0103-3.docx

**\ 3.4 Verbal Development** Language is a structured system of sound patterns (words and sentences) that have socially standardized meanings. It provides a set of symbols that rather, thoroughly catalogue the objects, events and processes in the human environment (Dc Vito, 1970). Specifically, lan...

**\ 3.4 Verbal Development** Language is a structured system of sound patterns (words and sentences) that have socially standardized meanings. It provides a set of symbols that rather, thoroughly catalogue the objects, events and processes in the human environment (Dc Vito, 1970). Specifically, language is made up of three components: **[Phonology]**, the joining together of units of sounds to form words.\ **[Semantics]**, a system of meanings associated with words and\ **[Syntax]**, rules for joining words to form phrases and sentences.\ \ Cognition has three principal elements similar to language namely, 1. a system of categories used to organize perceptual input (comparable to phonology) 2. rules for assigning meaning to information by recognizing objects or events and placing them within appropriate categories (similar to semantics) 3. Mechanisms for ascertaining the interrelationships among various categories (akin to syntax). Language development proceeds in an interesting hut fascinating way. Language starts by the learner receiving communication in the form of gazes, pointing of fingers at objects and paralanguage i.e. stress, pitch and volume of vocalization by which an expressed meaning is conveyed, Secondly, the language learner stalls by crying. This may include mad and pain cries which serve as the infants' main way of communicating (1 month). Thirdly, children speak their first word since birth 10-15 months e.g. ma, didy, 'tete', 'rore etc. At 18---22 months they begin to use two-word sentences e.g. not fix. All-gone. Then they end up after 24 months with telegraphic speech e.g. "car broke down". **3.4.1 Concepts and Principles: Intelligence and Motivation** **A. Intelligence\ **This has many definitions and literature is filled up with varying positrons. The lack of a single definition often results in confusion and disagreement about how we understand, explain and measure intelligence. Wechsler (1958) is reported in Crawl, Kaminski and Powel as defining intelligence as "the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal quietly with the environment." How much divergent views exist. as teachers we must use what is available to scientifically execute our national mandate. Students must be examined and classified and placed. Also, there are many theories that describe intelligence. Here mention will be made of very few: - 1. Psychomotor models 2. Spearman's g and h factors 3. Crystallized and fluid intelligence 4. Thurstone's primary mental abilities 5. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence 6. Sternberg' s Tantric theory 7. Unitary theory or monarchic theory (the oldest) of the true consideration of the different aspects e.g. - Defining intelligence for the understanding of its meaning - Discussing various theories explaining its structure in terms of various constraints or factors - Describing various other aspects and characteristics related to intelligence and its functioning. Also, there is the issue of the effect of heredity and environment on intelligence. The impact of nature on nurture has been investigated and reported by different sociologists.\ However, he following are some notes to be taken on intelligence. They include: 1. Distribution of intelligence is not confirmed 2. Individual differences exist in intelligence 3. Intelligence changes with age 4. There is difference in intelligence according to sex 5. There are differences in intelligences according to racial and cultural background. Although intelligence can be assessed objectively, it cannot be measured based on the controversy surrounding it as mentioned in the paragraph above. However, intelligence measures e.g. intelligence tests abound in the market for assessment of intelligence. They include group assessment and individual assessment intelligence lest. Another way of classifying intelligence test is that they could be verbal or language tests; non-verbal or non-language tests. It is the outcomes of these assessments that results in the classification of candidates' ability in the western world. **\ \ B. Motivation** According to Lacey (1995) and others "motivation is a mental state of that gives internal direction to our thoughts, feelings and activities. Also, it may be regarded as something which prompts, compels and energizes an individual to act or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time for attaining some specific goal or purpose. What is responsible for the motivation of an individual?\ What are the real activating forces that push and pull an individual to move or act for attaining a specific goal?\ Psychologists have provided some answers by naming these activating forces as needs, drives and motives. A need gives rise to a drive which activates a person from within and directs his activities to a goal that can bring about satisfaction of the need.\ Biological needs give birth to biological drives such as hunger, thirst and sex urge while socio-psychological needs produce socio-psychological drives such as fear, anxiety, approval and achievement. Drives are also influenced and guided by incentives like praise, appreciation, rewards or bonus. There are a number of viewpoints for explaining human motivation. Behaviorists put forward the theory and drive reduction theory by emphasizing that need, in the form of stimulation, gives birth to a drive or motive which in turn produces motivation. Freud explained that life instances (life and death instincts) are the ultimate cause of the motivation in humans. Adler remarked that human beings are motivated primarily by social urge, and therefore a human motivation can be explained only in terms of a single drive or motive named as security motive. Cognitive psychologists, with the help of their goal oriented theory highlighted the role of Cognitive factors in producing human motivation. Psychologist Maslow put forward a hierarchical structure of needs for explaining human motivation the gratification of lower order needs motivates an individual to strive for the higher order needs. On the top of the hierarchy lies the need for self-actualization. In fact, it is the satisfaction of this master need that guides and controls the motivation behavior of humans. In trying to apply what we know, you can use the following points in dealing with students. 1. Use praise wisely only when students' work warrants commendations 2. Include students purpose and interest in the development of class learning goals, present materials in very interesting and different ways 3. Make sure that students know the best strategies for achieving their learning goals 4. Vary classroom arrangement for learning. Provide opportunity for peer evaluation 5. Prompt curiosity in students by pointing out conflicts or contradictions and sorting up problem solving groups to work out solutions 6. Recognize differences to students' abilities and set standards for performance that are cognate with what students can accomplish. Reward effort but maintain standards 7. Minimize comparisons among students and make your critical responses to students' work both helpful and private. Don't criticize without teaching a good strategy that can help students overcome their learning problems.