Quiz 2 Notes.docx

**[HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH]** **[PIAGET]** Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.^1^ Piaget\'s stages are: - Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years - [[Preoperational stage]](https://www.verywellmind.com/preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795461): ages 2 to 7 - Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11 - Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. Piaget\'s stage theory describes the [[cognitive development of children.]](https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068) Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities.^2^ In Piaget\'s view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations. The Stages Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: The Sensorimotor Stage **Ages: Birth to 2 Years** Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: - The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations - Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening - Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen ([[object permanence]](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-object-permanence-2795405)) - They are separate beings from the people and objects around them - They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child\'s entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works. The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges. Piaget believed that developing [[object permanence]](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-object-permanence-2795405) or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects. ** **[[The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development]](https://www.verywellmind.com/sensorimotor-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795462) The Preoperational Stage **Ages: 2 to 7 Years** Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: - Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. - Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. - While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.^3^ Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.\ For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape *looks* larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size. ** **[[Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development in Young Children]](https://www.verywellmind.com/preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795461) The Concrete Operational Stage **Ages: 7 to 11 Years** Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes - During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events - They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example - Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete - Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic.^2^ The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions. ** **[[The Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development]](https://www.verywellmind.com/concrete-operational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795458) The Formal Operational Stage **Ages: 12 and Up** Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: - At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems - Abstract thought emerges - Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning - Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information The final stage of Piaget\'s theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.^3^ At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is important to note that Piaget did not view children\'s intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a *qualitative* change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages.^4^ A child at age 7 doesn\'t just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in *how* he thinks about the world. ** **[[Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development]](https://www.verywellmind.com/formal-operational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795459) Important Concepts To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget. The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow: [*[Schemas]*](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873) A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In Piaget\'s view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.^3^ As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child\'s sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations. ** **[[What Role Do Schemas Play in the Learning Process?]](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873) *Assimilation* The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it \"dog\" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child\'s dog schema. ** **[[Assimilation and Jean Piaget\'s Adaptation Process]](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-assimilation-2794821) *Accommodation* Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.^5^ New schemas may also be developed during this process. ** **[[The Role of Accommodation in How We Learn New Information]](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-accommodation-2795218) *Equilibration* Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.^3^ **[Maslow]** Maslow\'s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow\'s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. **Deficiency needs vs. growth needs** This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (*D-needs*), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (*B-needs*). Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become. Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a needs is not an "all-or-none" phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given "the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges" (1987, p. 69). When a deficit need has been \'more or less\' satisfied it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged. Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs. **The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:** Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. 1. **[Physiological needs]** - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. 2. **[Safety needs]** - Once an individual's physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability and control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools, business and medical care). For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury). 3. **[Love and belongingness needs]** - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). 4. **[Esteem needs]** are the fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. 5. **[Self-actualization needs]** are the highest level in Maslow\'s hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person\'s potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings, pictures, or inventions. Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy: \"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone --- when there is no bread. But what happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled? At once other (and "higher") needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still "higher") needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency\" *(Maslow, 1943, p. 375)*. Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987). Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy "is not nearly as rigid" (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description. Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that "any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them" (p. 71). **Hierarchy of needs summary** \(a) human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. \(b) needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) prior to higher needs. \(c) the order of needs is not rigid but instead may be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. \(d) most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously determined by more than one basic need. The expanded hierarchy of needs It is important to note that Maslow\'s (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b). Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s. 1. *Biological and physiological needs* - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. *Safety needs* - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. 3. *Love and belongingness needs* - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). 4. *Esteem needs* - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). 5. *Cognitive needs* - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. *6. Aesthetic needs* - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. *Self-actualization needs* - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire "to become everything one is capable of becoming"(Maslow, 1987, p. 64). 8. *Transcendence needs* - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith, etc.). **Self-actualization** Instead of focusing on [psychopathology](https://www.simplypsychology.org/abnormal-psychology.html) and what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943) formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of. The growth of [self-actualization](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-actualization.html) (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person's life. For Maslow, a person is always \'becoming\' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization, a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to them. As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting. Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder. It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a \'happy ever after\' (Hoffman, 1988). Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization: \'It refers to the person's desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions\' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382--383). Characteristics of self-actualized people Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization. He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals. By studying 18 people he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person. **Characteristics of self-actualizers:** 1\. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty; 2\. Accept themselves and others for what they are; 3\. Spontaneous in thought and action; 4\. Problem-centered (not self-centered); 5\. Unusual sense of humor; 6\. Able to look at life objectively; 7\. Highly creative; 8\. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional; 9\. Concerned for the welfare of humanity; 10\. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience; 11\. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people; 12\. Peak experiences; 13\. Need for privacy; 14\. Democratic attitudes; 15\. Strong moral/ethical standards. **Behavior leading to self-actualization:** \(a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration; \(b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths; \(c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition, authority or the majority; \(d) Avoiding pretense (\'game playing\') and being honest; \(e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority; \(f) Taking responsibility and working hard; \(g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up. The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are shown in the list above. Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, \'There are no perfect human beings\' (Maslow,1970a, p. 176). It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only self-actualized people will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves achieving one\'s potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieve self-actualization Educational applications Maslow\'s (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a [response in the environment](https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html), Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning. Applications of Maslow\'s hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student\'s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a [low self-esteem](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html) will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened. Maslow (1971, p. 195) argued that a humanistic educational approach would develop people who are "stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With increased personal responsibility for one's personal life, and with a rational set of values to guide one's choosing, people would begin to actively change the society in which they lived". Critical evaluation The most significant limitation of Maslow\'s theory concerns his methodology. Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualized individuals from undertaking a qualitative method called biographical analysis. He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. From a [scientific perspective](https://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html), there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Personal opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces the [validity](https://www.simplypsychology.org/validity.html) of any data obtained. Therefore Maslow\'s operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact. Furthermore, Maslow\'s biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, [William James](https://www.simplypsychology.org/william-james.html), Aldous Huxley, Beethoven). Although Maslow (1970) did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they comprised a small proportion of his [sample](https://www.simplypsychology.org/sampling.html). This makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicity. Thus questioning the population validity of Maslow\'s findings. Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to [empirically test](https://www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html) Maslow\'s concept of self-actualization in a way that causal relationships can be established. Another criticism concerns Maslow\'s assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always the case, and therefore Maslow\'s hierarchy of needs in some aspects has been [falsified](https://www.simplypsychology.org/Karl-Popper.html). Through examining cultures in which large numbers of people live in poverty (such as India), it is clear that people are still capable of higher order needs such as love and belongingness. However, this should not occur, as according to Maslow, people who have difficulty achieving very basic physiological needs (such as food, shelter, etc.) are not capable of meeting higher growth needs. Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g., Rembrandt and Van Gogh) lived in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they achieved self-actualization. by higher growth needs at the same time as lower level deficiency needs (Wahba & Bridwell, 1973). Contemporary research by Tay and Diener (2011) has tested Maslow's theory by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing every major region of the world. The survey was conducted from 2005 to 2010. Respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble those in Maslow\'s model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs (love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy. They also rated their well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person\'s view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of sorrow, anger, or stress). The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was not correct. \"Although the most basic needs might get the most attention when you don\'t have them,\" Diener explains, \"you don\'t need to fulfill them in order to get benefits \[from the others\].\" Even when we are hungry, for instance, we can be happy with our friends. \"They\'re like vitamins,\" Diener says about how the needs work independently. \"We need them all.\" **[ERICKSON]** Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst [Sigmund Freud\'s work](https://www.verywellmind.com/sigmund-freud-his-life-work-and-theories-2795860), Erikson\'s theory centered on psychosocial development rather than [psychosexual development](https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962). The stages that make up his theory are as follows:^1^ - **Stage 1**: [Trust vs. Mistrust](https://www.verywellmind.com/trust-versus-mistrust-2795741) - **Stage 2**: [Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt](https://www.verywellmind.com/autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt-2795733) - **Stage 3**: [Initiative vs. Guilt](https://www.verywellmind.com/initiative-versus-guilt-2795737) - **Stage 4**: [Industry vs. Inferiority](https://www.verywellmind.com/industry-versus-inferiority-2795736) - **Stage 5**: [Identity vs. Confusion](https://www.verywellmind.com/identity-versus-confusion-2795735) - **Stage 6**: [Intimacy vs. Isolation](https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739) - **Stage 7**: [Generativity vs. Stagnation](https://www.verywellmind.com/generativity-versus-stagnation-2795734) - **Stage 8**: [Integrity vs. Despair](https://www.verywellmind.com/integrity-versus-despair-2795738) Let\'s take a closer look at the background and different stages that make up Erikson\'s psychosocial theory. Verywell / Joshua Seong Overview So what exactly did Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development entail? [Much like Sigmund Freud](https://www.verywellmind.com/freud-and-erikson-compared-2795959), Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud\'s theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson\'s theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings. Conflict During Each Stage Each stage in Erikson\'s theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a [conflict](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-conflict-2794976) that serves as a turning point in development.^2^ In Erikson\'s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives.^3^ If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. Mastery Leads to Ego Strength Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson\'s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development. **Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart** ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------- ------------- **Age** **Conflict** **Important Events** **Outcome** **Infancy** (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope **Early Childhood** (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Will **Preschool **(3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose **School Age** (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence **Adolescence** (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity **Young Adulthood** (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love **Middle Adulthood** (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Care **Maturity** (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom A brief summary of the eight stages Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust The first stage of Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child\'s caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life. Outcomes If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.^2^ Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present. Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the importance of trust in forming [healthy attachments](https://www.verywellmind.com/attachment-styles-2795344) during childhood and adulthood. ** **[Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to Trust the World Around Us](https://www.verywellmind.com/trust-versus-mistrust-2795741) Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt The second stage of Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. The Role of Independence At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.^2^ Potty Training The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson\'s reasoning was quite different than that of Freud\'s. Erikson believed that learning to control one\'s bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Outcomes Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Finding Balance Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. ** **[How Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Influences Development](https://www.verywellmind.com/autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt-2795733) Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. Outcomes The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as** **purpose emerges. ** **[This Is How Children Develop a Sense of Initiative](https://www.verywellmind.com/initiative-versus-guilt-2795737) Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Outcomes Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them. ** **[How Children Develop a Sense of Industry vs Inferiority](https://www.verywellmind.com/industry-versus-inferiority-2795736) Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person\'s life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.^2^ Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. What Is Identity? When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person\'s behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society\'s standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the [conscious](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-conscious-mind-2794984) sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity. Why Identity Is Important Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age. ** **[How People Develop a Sense of Identity](https://www.verywellmind.com/identity-versus-confusion-2795735) Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.^2^ Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Building On Earlier Stages Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong [sense of personal identity](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-an-identity-crisis-2795948) was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, [loneliness](https://www.verywellmind.com/loneliness-causes-effects-and-treatments-2795749), and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. ** **[Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others](https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739) Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.^2^ Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage. ** **[How People Develop a Sense of Generativity vs Stagnation](https://www.verywellmind.com/generativity-versus-stagnation-2795734) Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.^2^ At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn\'t do. Erikson\'s theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have. Outcomes Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain** **wisdom, even when confronting death. ** **[An Overview of Integrity vs. Despair](https://www.verywellmind.com/integrity-versus-despair-2795738) Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson\'s Theory Erikson\'s theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person move from one stage to the next? Criticism One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage. Support One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development. Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson\'s ideas about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation.^4^ Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate relationships during early adulthood. Other research suggests, however, that identity formation and development continues well into adulthood.^5^ Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a [humanistic](https://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html) psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of [Abraham Maslow](https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html). However, Rogers (1959) added that for a person to \"grow\", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, [self actualization](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-actualization.html) took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied. Self Actualization ------------------ \"*The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism*" (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both [psychoanalysis](https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychoanalysis.html) and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. \"As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves.\" Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one\'s potential and achieve the highest level of \'human-beingness\' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative. They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. This means that self-actualization occurs when a person's "[ideal self](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html#ideal)" (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior ([self-image](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html#image)). Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience. The Fully Functioning Person ---------------------------- Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing. In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life's journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing. ###### Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person: **1. Open to experience**: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms). **2. Existential living**: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment). **3. Trust feelings**: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People's own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. **4. Creativity**: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person's life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. **5. Fulfilled life**: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know. Often such people are high achievers in society. Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the achievement of any one person. Personality Development ----------------------- Central to Rogers\' personality theory is the notion of self or [self-concept](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html). This is defined as \"the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.\" The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or [Freud\'s psyche](https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html). The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others. According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components: ###### Self-worth Self-worth (or [self-esteem](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html)) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. ###### Self-image How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world. ###### Ideal-self This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic -- i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc. Positive Regard and Self Worth ------------------------------ Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth. How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization. Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. For Carl Rogers (1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people. A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth. Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard. ###### Unconditional Positive Regard Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake. The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times. People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood. ###### Conditional Positive Regard Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s). At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child. Congruence ---------- A person's [ideal self](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html#ideal) may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person's ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person's ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence. The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our [self-image](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html#image) and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. Incongruence is \"a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience. As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use [defense mechanisms](https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html) like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will defend because the truth hurts. **[Positive reinforcement]** **[Negative reinforcement]** **[Positive punishment]** **[Negative punishment]** Reinforcement ------------- - Reinforcement is used to help increase the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future by delivering or removing a stimulus immediately after a behavior. - Another way to put it is that reinforcement, if done correctly, results in a behavior occurring more frequently in the future. **Positive Reinforcement** -------------------------- Positive reinforcement works by *presenting *a motivating/reinforcing stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the future. **The following are some examples of positive reinforcement:** - A mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework (behavior). - The little boy receives \$5.00 (reinforcing stimulus) for every A he earns on his report card (behavior). - A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior). **Negative Reinforcement** -------------------------- Negative reinforcement occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is *removed* after a particular behavior is exhibited. The likelihood of the particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased because of removing/avoiding the negative consequence. Negative reinforcement [should not] be thought of as a punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you are increasing a behavior, whereas with punishment, you are decreasing a behavior. **The following are some examples of negative reinforcement:** - Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to stop his mother's nagging (aversive stimulus). - Natalie can get up from the dinner table (aversive stimulus) when she eats 2 bites of her broccoli (behavior). - Joe presses a button (behavior) that turns off a loud alarm (aversive stimulus) When thinking about reinforcement, always remember that the end result is to try to increase the behavior, whereas punishment procedures are used to decrease behavior. For positive reinforcement, think of it as adding something positive in order to increase a response. For negative reinforcement, think of it as taking something negative away in order to increase a response. Punishment ---------- - When people hear that punishment procedures are being used, they typically think of an aversive or harmful consequence. This is not always the case as you can see below. - Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. Like reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). - There are two types of punishment: positive and negative, and it can be difficult to tell the difference between the two. Below are some examples to help clear up the confusion. **What is Positive Punishment?** -------------------------------- Positive punishment works by *presenting* an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. The following are some examples of positive punishment: - A child picks his nose during class (behavior) and the teacher reprimands him (aversive stimulus) in front of his classmates. - A child touches a hot stove (behavior) and feels pain (aversive stimulus). - A person eats spoiled food (behavior) and gets a bad taste in his/her mouth (aversive stimulus). **What is Negative Punishment?** -------------------------------- Negative punishment happens when a certain reinforcing stimulus is *removed* after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future. **The following are some examples of negative punishment:** - A child kicks a peer (behavior), and is removed from his/her favorite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed) - A child yells out in class (behavior), loses a token for good behavior on his/her token board (reinforcing stimulus removed) that could have later be cashed in for a prize. - A child fights with her brother (behavior) and has her favorite toy taken away (reinforcing stimulus removed). With punishment, always remember that the end result is to try to decrease the undesired behavior. Positive punishment involves adding an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future responses. Negative punishment includes taking away a certain reinforcing item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. It should be noted that research shows that positive consequences are more powerful than negative consequences for improving behavior. Therefore, it is always suggested that these interventions be tried prior to negative consequences. **[Psychodynamic theory]** [Psychodynamic theory](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapy-types/psychodynamic-therapy) was originated by Sigmund Freud. It puts forth the idea that all human behavior and feelings are impacted by the conscious and unconscious mind. Freud identified the unconscious as made up of the id, the ego, and the superego, theorizing that all three determine thinking and behavior. His insights were gleaned from what his patients shared during talk therapy sessions as Freud worked with them to resolve their conflicts. In psychodynamic theory, the id is defined as the primal part of our personality that seeks pleasure, avoids pain, and lacks filters. An example of pure id is a toddler in the throes of a tantrum. Young children have yet to develop the superego, which imparts impulse control and integrates societal expectations. Freud identified the ego as the mediator working to strike a healthy balance between the primal tendencies of the id and the regulatory forces of the superego. **How is psychodynamic theory used in social work?** Under Freud\'s teachings, the goal of psychodynamic theory is to offer clients insights into the internal conflicts in play and to change behavior and feelings with those insights. The social worker guides clients in identifying, confronting, and resolving their conflicts. Psychodynamic theory is often utilized with other approaches because it focuses on the unconscious and the past. A treatment gap with this theory is that it does not support the introduction of more practical interventions for the present and future.

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