Quiz 1 Prep PDF

Question 1: What is the primary focus of anthropology?\ a) Studying the origins of the universe.\ **b) Exploring the diversity of human cultures across time and space.**\ c) Analyzing the biological evolution of animals.\ d) Examining the impact of technology on society.\ Fieldwork also has the pote...

Question 1: What is the primary focus of anthropology?\ a) Studying the origins of the universe.\ **b) Exploring the diversity of human cultures across time and space.**\ c) Analyzing the biological evolution of animals.\ d) Examining the impact of technology on society.\ Fieldwork also has the potential to radically transform the anthropologist themselves. Nancy Scheper- Hughes, a middle- class woman from the United States, traveled to one of the poorest places in the world, learned the language, lived in the community, built relationships of trust, accompanied local people through the births and deaths of their children, and searched for meaning in the midst of the pain. As you might imagine from the reading, the fieldwork experience can become more than a strategy for understanding human culture. Question 2: What is the term used to describe the tendency to believe that one\'s own culture is superior to others?\ a) Holism\ b) Ethnography\ **c) Ethnocentrism**\ d) Cultural relativism\ \ Question 3: According to the text, which of the following is NOT a key characteristic of anthropological research?\ a) A global scope\ b) Focus on local communities and everyday life\ **c) Emphasis on quantitative data analysis**\ d) Belief in the interconnectedness of all humans\ \ Question 4: What is the primary research strategy employed by cultural anthropologists?\ a) Laboratory experiments\ b) Survey questionnaires\ c) Archival research\ **d) Ethnographic fieldwork**\ \ Question 5: What is the \"four-field approach\" in anthropology?\ a) A method for analyzing data from different cultures.\ **b) A framework for understanding human origins and culture through four interrelated disciplines.**\ c) A technique for conducting ethnographic fieldwork.\ d) A set of ethical guidelines for anthropological research.\ \ \#\# ANSWER KEY:\ Question 1: b) Exploring the diversity of human cultures across time and space.\ Explanation: The text defines anthropology as the study of the full scope of human diversity, past and present.\ \ Question 2: c) Ethnocentrism\ Explanation: Ethnocentrism is defined as the belief that one\'s own culture is normal, natural, and superior to others.\ \ Question 3: c) Emphasis on quantitative data analysis\ Explanation: While anthropologists may use quantitative data, their primary focus is on qualitative understanding gained through ethnographic fieldwork and participant observation.\ \ Question 4: d) Ethnographic fieldwork\ Explanation: The text highlights ethnographic fieldwork as a primary research strategy in cultural anthropology. Question 5: b) A framework for understanding human origins and culture through four interrelated disciplines.\ Explanation: The four-field approach encompasses physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. \#\# 5 Multiple Choice Questions at the University Level with Answers and Explanations\ Chapter 2: Civilization\ \ 1. According to Edward Burnett Tylor, what is the relationship between culture and civilization?\ a) Civilization is a higher stage of cultural development.\ b) Culture and civilization are distinct and unrelated concepts.\ **c) Civilization is a subset of culture, representing its most advanced form.\ ***d) Culture and civilization are interchangeable terms.*\ \ 2. How did Victorian anthropologists, like Tylor and Morgan, view the concept of \"civilization\"?\ a) As a static and unchanging state, representing the pinnacle of human progress.\ b) As a morally neutral term, simply describing a stage in societal development.\ **c) As a dynamic process, with societies evolving from savagery to barbarism and finally civilization.**\ d) As a problematic concept, steeped in Eurocentric bias and justifying colonialism.\ \ 3. What is the significance of the \"psychic unity of mankind\" principle within the framework of social evolutionism?\ **a) It suggests that all human societies are fundamentally equal in their potential for development.**\ b) It reinforces the idea of inherent racial superiority and justifies colonial domination.\ c*) It allows anthropologists to compare different cultures and trace their evolutionary paths*.\ d) It emphasizes the importance of cultural diversity and the unique characteristics of each society.\ \ 4. Franz Boas critiqued the social evolutionary approach for its:\ a) Emphasis on the importance of cultural borrowing and adaptation.\ b) **Focus on deductive reasoning and the construction of a uniform history of culture**.\ c) Denial of the existence of cultural evolution and the progression of societies.\ d) Overemphasis on the role of biological evolution in shaping human societies.\ \ 5. What does the term \"denial of coevalness\" refer to, as coined by Johannes Fabian?\ *a) The tendency to view cultures as existing in a separate time frame, detached from contemporary society.*\ **b) The refusal to acknowledge the existence of different cultural perspectives and worldviews.**\ c) The inability to recognize the impact of globalization on traditional societies.\ d) The deliberate attempt to preserve traditional cultures by isolating them from modern influences.\ \ ANSWER KEY:\ \ 1. d) Culture and civilization are interchangeable terms.\ Explanation: Tylor believed that culture and civilization were essentially synonymous, representing the accumulation of knowledge, customs, and beliefs within a society.\ \ 2. c) As a dynamic process, with societies evolving from savagery to barbarism and finally civilization.\ Explanation: Victorian anthropologists viewed civilization as a progressive endpoint in a linear evolutionary trajectory, with societies progressing from primitive stages to a more advanced and refined state.\ \ 3. c) It allows anthropologists to compare different cultures and trace their evolutionary paths.\ Explanation: The principle of psychic unity assumed a shared human capacity for thought and development, enabling anthropologists to compare diverse societies and map their evolutionary paths.\ \ 4. b) Focus on deductive reasoning and the construction of a uniform history of culture.\ Explanation: Boas argued that social evolutionism relied on a deductive approach, starting with a predetermined conclusion about cultural evolution and then seeking evidence to support it. He advocated for an inductive approach that started with specific observations and built towards broader generalizations.\ \ 5. a) The tendency to view cultures as existing in a separate time frame, detached from contemporary society.\ Explanation: Fabian\'s \"denial of coevalness\" highlights the tendency to perceive other cultures as stuck in the past, denying their contemporaneity with the observer. This perpetuates a hierarchical view of cultures and reinforces the idea of Western superiority. Question 1: According to Lila Abu-Lughod, why is the concept of \"culture\" problematic in anthropological discourse?\ [a) It perpetuates a hierarchical relationship between the observer and the observed.]\ b) It simplifies the complex social dynamics of cultures.\ **c) It fails to account for the fluidity and change within cultures.\ **d) It ignores the impact of historical context on cultural development.\ \ Question 2: What is the primary critique Abu-Lughod levels against the feminist movement\'s use of \"women\'s culture\"?\ **a) It reinforces essentialist notions of gender differences.**\ b) It overlooks the diversity within the category of \"women.\"\ c) It fails to address the historical context of gender roles.\ d) It overlooks the power dynamics at play within gender relations.\ \ Question 3: Which of the following is NOT a strategy Abu-Lughod proposes for \"writing against culture\"?\ a) Focusing on the concept of \"practice\" to analyse social life.\ b) **Examining historical and contemporary connections between the anthropologist and the community studied.**\ c) Writing ethnographic accounts that emphasize the particularities of individual lives.\ d) *Promoting a more culturally relativistic approach to anthropological research.*\ \ Question 4: How does Abu-Lughod argue that generalization can be detrimental to anthropological understanding?\ **a) It masks the complexity of cultural dynamics within a community.**\ b) It reinforces the notion of the anthropologist as an objective observer.\ c) It obscures the role of power in shaping cultural interpretations.\ d) It prioritizes the study of individual experience over larger social structures.\ \ Question 5: What is the primary purpose of Abu-Lughod\'s call for \"ethnographies of the particular\"?\ **a) To challenge the assumption of cultural coherence and homogeneity.**\ b) To prioritize individual experience over cultural generalization.\ *c) To move away from the idea of \"culture\" as a fixed and bounded entity.*\ d) To create a more engaging and accessible form of anthropological writing.\ \ ANSWER KEY:\ \ Question 1: a) It perpetuates a hierarchical relationship between the observer and the observed.\ Explanation: Abu-Lughod argues that the concept of \"culture\" reinforces a binary distinction between the knowledgeable anthropologist (the \"subject\") and the \"other\" whose culture is under investigation. This binary inherently implies a power imbalance.\ \ Question 2: a) It reinforces essentialist notions of gender differences.\ Explanation: Abu-Lughod critiques cultural feminism for perpetuating essentialist ideas about women\'s culture, implying that there is a fundamental, innate difference between men and women. She believes this approach overlooks the complexities and variations within both genders.\ \ Question 3: d) Promoting a more culturally relativistic approach to anthropological research.\ Explanation: While Abu-Lughod supports cultural relativism, she doesn\'t propose it as a strategy for \"writing against culture\". Her main focus is on challenging the concept of culture itself as a tool of othering and power dynamics.\ \ Question 4: a) It masks the complexity of cultural dynamics within a community.\ Explanation: Abu-Lughod argues that generalization flattens out differences within a community, creating a false sense of homogeneity and obscuring the complex realities of social life.\ \ Question 5: c) To move away from the idea of \"culture\" as a fixed and bounded entity.\ Explanation: By focusing on individual narratives, Abu-Lughod aims to destabilize the concept of culture as a unified, unchanging entity. She argues that individual lives are constantly evolving and shaped by multiple influences, making a singular \"culture\" difficult to define. 1\. What was the catalyst for the Wet\'suwet\'en hereditary chiefs\' eviction of Coastal GasLink (CGL) from their territory?\ a) **CGL's failure to obtain consent from the hereditary chiefs for construction of the pipeline**\ b) The RCMP's intervention on behalf of CGL\ c) The signing of the Indigenous Women of the Americas Defenders of Mother Earth Treaty Compact\ d) The resurgence movement\'s desire to challenge settler colonialism\ \ 2. According to the text, how does the act of turning away from the state benefit Indigenous communities?\ a) It allows for the development of a stronger relationship with settler populations.\ **b) It allows for the exploration of new forms of international relations between Indigenous nations.**\ c) It helps to address issues of gender inequality and dismantle colonial notions of family.\ *d) All of the above*\ \ 3. What is the significance of the Indigenous Women of the Americas Defenders of Mother Earth Treaty Compact?\ a) It marks the first time Indigenous women from across the Americas came together to create a treaty.\ b) It outlines the crimes being committed against Mother Earth and calls for action to protect her.\ c) It centers Indigenous women\'s voices and leadership in addressing environmental justice issues.\ **d) All of the above**\ \ 4. What is the underlying principle that guides the practice of \"turning away from the state\" as described in the text?\ **a) The recognition of Indigenous nationhood and land-based governance**\ b) The complete rejection of any engagement with state actors\ c) The promotion of violent resistance against settler colonialism\ d) The development of a new form of government based on Indigenous principles\ \ 5. According to the text, what is the most important aspect of revolutionary work for Indigenous communities?\ a) The creation of treaties with other Indigenous nations\ b) The engagement in violent acts of civil disobedience\ c**) The constant, everyday acts of resistance and renewal**\ d) The reliance on international forums to address injustices\ \ ANSWER KEY\ \ 1. Answer: a) CGL's failure to obtain consent from the hereditary chiefs for construction of the pipeline\ Explanation: The text explicitly states that CGL set up an industrial camp to build a pipeline \"without the free, prior and informed consent of the hereditary chiefs.\" This lack of consent led to the eviction of CGL.\ \ 2. Answer: d) All of the above\ Explanation: The text highlights several benefits of turning away from the state, including: strengthening relationships with settler populations through solidarity movements, exploring new forms of diplomacy between Indigenous nations, challenging gender inequalities and colonial family structures.\ \ 3. Answer: d) All of the above\ Explanation: The text describes the Indigenous Women's Treaty as a unique and significant achievement for several reasons: It\'s the first of its kind, it addresses crimes against Mother Earth and Indigenous women, and it centers Indigenous women's voices and leadership in the fight for environmental justice.\ \ 4. Answer: a) The recognition of Indigenous nationhood and land-based governance\ Explanation: The text emphasizes that \"turning away from the state\" is a means of centering Indigenous self-determination and authority, focusing on Indigenous land rights and governance.\ \ 5. Answer: c) The constant, everyday acts of resistance and renewal\ Explanation: The text quotes Nick Estes who describes the "collective faith that another world is possible" as the most important aspect of revolutionary work. This faith is built through everyday acts of resistance, remembrance, and renewal. 1\. According to the text, what is the primary focus of the book \"Lives in Limbo: Undocumented and Coming of Age in America?\"\ a) The legal and political debate surrounding undocumented young people in the United States.\ b) **The personal experiences of undocumented Mexican young adults in Los Angeles, California.**\ c) The historical context of Mexican immigration to the United States.\ d) The challenges faced by undocumented immigrants in finding employment and housing.\ \ [2. Which of the following is NOT a turning point in the lives of undocumented youth, as described in the text?]\ a) Graduating from high school.\ *[b) Turning eighteen years old.]*\ c) **Obtaining a driver\'s license.**\ d) Getting married and starting a family.\ \ 3. What does the text suggest is the primary reason why undocumented youth experience a \"transition to illegality\" as they enter adulthood?\ a) Their lack of access to legal resources and support networks.\ b) The increasing prevalence of anti-immigrant sentiment in American society.\ c) **The growing gap between their sense of American identity and their legal status.**\ d) The pressure to conform to traditional expectations of adulthood, such as getting a job and becoming financially independent.\ \ 4. Based on the experiences of the individuals profiled in the text, what is a common theme among undocumented youth in their transition to adulthood?\ a) A desire to return to their home country.\ b) A sense of disillusionment and anger towards the American Dream.\ c) **A growing awareness of the limitations imposed by their undocumented status.**\ d) A sense of shame and guilt for being undocumented.\ \ 5. The author uses the phrase \"It takes two to tango\" to illustrate what point about the experience of undocumented immigrants in the United States?\ a) The importance of social and cultural integration for successful assimilation.\ **b) The need for a mutual effort between undocumented immigrants and the host country for successful assimilation.**\ c) The challenges faced by undocumented immigrants in learning to navigate the complexities of American culture.\ d) The significance of family support systems in helping undocumented immigrants to thrive in the United States.\ \ ANSWER KEY\ 1. b) The personal experiences of undocumented Mexican young adults in Los Angeles, California.\ Explanation: The text specifically states that the book focuses on the lives of undocumented Mexican young adults in Los Angeles, emphasizing their experiences of belonging and exclusion within the American society.\ \ 2. b) Turning eighteen years old.\ Explanation: While turning eighteen is a significant milestone in adulthood, the text highlights turning points related to legal status, such as obtaining a driver\'s license, getting a job, and graduating from high school.\ \ 3. c) The growing gap between their sense of American identity and their legal status.\ Explanation: The text explains that as undocumented youth transition to adulthood, they face increasing legal barriers, creating a gap between their sense of being \"American\" and their lack of legal recognition as citizens.\ \ 4. c) A growing awareness of the limitations imposed by their undocumented status.\ Explanation: Throughout the text, individuals share experiences of realizing their undocumented status through various situations, such as applying for jobs, obtaining driver\'s licenses, or participating in school activities, highlighting the increasing awareness of legal barriers.\ \ 5. b) The need for a mutual effort between undocumented immigrants and the host country for successful assimilation.\ Explanation: The quote \"It takes two to tango\" emphasizes the idea that successful assimilation requires a reciprocal effort from both undocumented immigrants and the host country. The host country needs to be willing to include them, while individuals need to be able to engage in society. 1. Anthropology: The study of the full scope of human diversity, past and present. Makes the strange familiar, and the familiar strange. Gives us tools to interpret what's happening all around us. Inspires novel approaches to problems. Helps us co-exist in a diverse world Four sub-fields: oBiological/Physical anthropology (human biology and evolution); Archaeology (past societies); Linguistic anthropology (languages); Cultural anthropology (The study of human cultural variation in the present and recent past; How this variation manifests itself in all aspects of life; Connects the lives of individuals to larger social structures (political and economic organization, gender, race/ethnicity, class, etc.) Culture: What gives us answers to "small questions," as well as "big" ones; A system of knowledge, beliefs, patterns of behavior, artifacts, and institutions that are created, learned, shared, and contested by a group of people (Kenneth Guest) No one correct definition. Learned - Most behavior is not determined by biology, We're not born with culture, Enculturation: the process of learning to be a member of a particular group. Unfixed - Cultures are not isolated or stuck in place; No clear boundaries where one culture "ends" and another "begins". Change: Diffusion - the spread of cultural elements from one group to another. Contestation: people within a group debate and resist norms, values, symbols, systems of classification, and social structures. Norms: Shared ideas about the way things ought to be done; informal rules of behavior. Examples: greetings; marriage Values: Shared ideas about what is true, right, and beautiful Examples: independence; money; beauty standards. Symbols: Something that represents something else; conveys meaning to people. Examples: language; religious symbols; gestures 3. Ethnography: A qualitative research strategy based on fieldwork (i.e. research out in the "real world," not in a lab, Usually involves: Living in a place (a field site) for at least a year, Learning the local language, Interacting with people (interlocutors), Paying attention to the details of everyday life.); A written product; books or articles that provide an in-depth analysis of a group of people. All about stories. In the early 20th century, the field was often far away from the researcher's home. Today, the field can be anywhere. Methods: Participant observation: participating in the daily lives of your interlocutors, while also being an observer -- someone who can describe and analyze events; Interviews: unstructured, semi-structured, or structured Emic: understanding the group being studied on their own terms Etic: understanding the group being studied from the anthropologist's perspective Ethics: do no harm; gain informed consent; protect interlocutors' anonymity Reflexivity: an awareness that your identity affects your fieldwork and analysis ANS: Option 1 Systems of classification: Ways of describing and categorizing things. Created by humans, so they vary across time and space. Examples: time; gender categories Social structures: Long lasting ways and social arrangements of organizing social life that influence and limit what people do oPolitics, economics, class, race, gender, etc. Social structures shape the (uneven) distribution of power. Example: capitalism Heterogeneity: People within a what might be described as a cultural group have very different lives due to their positions within social structures. 1. Stratification: the unequal distribution of power and resources among members of a group. Engleke: Tylor and the social evolutionists(late 19th century) believed "Culture is... that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society"; Different societies are at different "stages" of culture. Social evolutionism. Savagery and barbarism each had lower, middle, and upper stages (use of tools, materials, resources, bow and arrow, smelting iron, etc.); civilization, on the other hand, was uniform. Teleological view. was a moral philosophy masquerading as science. This kind of paternalism served the purposes of empire extremely well, asserting the moral superiority of one's own side in a conflict. Franz Boas and his students(early to mid 20th century): Culture is like a pair of glasses; it's the lens through which we see the world; Rejected social evolutionism; all cultures have their own particular histories and internal differences. Denial of coevalness: prevents us from seeing that the lives of Katine villagers are not trapped in the fourteenth century but lived out in a twenty- firstcentury world shaped by a host of colonial and postcolonial economic and political dynamics. Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures from the perspective of one's own culture; the idea that one's own culture is superior or natural; Can lead to discrimination and domination. C.f. Cultural relativism: Cultures should be analyzed with reference to their own histories and values, rather than according to the values of another culture (But anthropologists can still have their own ethical stances). Critique of Culture concept beginning in 1980s: Abu-Lughod - Argued it was being used overly simplistically by both anthropologists and the public. Tendency to be essentialist - The idea that there are certain unchanging traits that define a culture and all of its members e.g. "The Balinese look at you with grace and ease, and greet you with kind, gentle patience. As far as I can tell, no Balinese person has ever been in a bad mood." Rather than settle for new textual strategies in ethnography that acknowledge the "partial" and "situated" qualities of ethnographic texts, Abu-Lughod argues for strategies of writing against culture altogether. Culture, she argues, remains too laden with the assumptions of a divide between the knowledgeable scholar (that is, the "subject," the "self") and the person whose culture is under investigation (the "object", the "other"), always entails some kind of uneven or hierarchical relationship. European and North American scholars were able to study "others" in a colonial situation in which those scholars also held considerable *power* over those "others". Work on culture today needs to not simply acknowledge this history, Abu-Lughod argues, but actively work *against* it by developing critical challenges to the idea of culture as we know it today. Unlike race, and unlike even the nineteenth-century sense of culture as a synonym for civilization (contrasted to barbarism), the current concept allows for multiple rather than binary differences. This immediately checks the easy move to hierarchizing, the shift to "culture"...has a relativizing effect. The most important of culture's advantages, however, is that it removes difference from the realm of the natural and the innate. Whether conceived of as a set of behaviors, customs, traditions, rules, plans, recipes, instructions, or programs... culture is learned and can change. The culture concept retains some of the tendencies to freeze difference possessed by concepts like race. valorization by cultural feminists, like reverse Orientalists, of the previously devalued qualities attributed to them may he provisionally useful in forging a sense of unity and in waging struggles of empowerment. Yet because it leaves in place the divide that structured the experiences of selfhood and oppression on which it builds, it perpetuates some dangerous tendencies. First, cultural feminists overlook the connections between those on each side of the divide, and the ways in which they define each other. Second, they overlook differences within each category constructed by the dividing practices, differences like those of class, race, and sexuality (to repeat the feminist litany of problematically abstract categories), but also ethnic origin, personal experience, age, mode of livelihood, health, living situation (rural or urban), and historical experience. Third, and perhaps most important, they ignore the ways in which experiences have been constructed historically and have changed over time. Both cultural feminism and revivalist movements tend to rely on notions of authenticity and the return to positive values not represented by the dominant other. As becomes obvious in the most extreme cases, these moves erase history. the notion of culture which both types of movements use does not seem to guarantee an escape from the tendency toward essentialism. that cultural theories also tend to overemphasize coherence. promotion of cultural relativism over evaluationand judgment. If anthropology has always to some extent been a form of cultural (self-) critique, that too was an aspect of a refusal to hierarchize difference. Yet neither position would be possible without difference. It would be worth thinking about the implications of the high stakes anthropology has in sustaining and perpetuating a belief in the existence of cultures that are identifiable as discrete, different, and separate from our own. Does difference always smuggle in hierarchy? E.g. it becomes difficult to think that the term "Bedouin culture" makes sense when one tries to piece together and convey what life is like for one old Bedouin matriarch. The old woman chuckles as she tells this story, just as she laughs hard over stories about the excessive sexuality of old women. How does this sense of humor, this appreciation of the bawdy, go with devotion to prayer and protocols of honor? How does her nostalgia for the past -- when the area was empty and she could see for miles around when she used to play as a little girl digging up the occasional potsherd or glass bottle in the area now fenced and guarded by the government Antiquities Organization; when her family migrated with the sheep herds and milked and made butter in desert pastures -- go with her fierce defense of her favorite grandson, whose father was furious with him because the young man was rumored to have drunk liquor at a local wedding? People do not drink in the community, and drinking is, of course, religiously proscribed. What can "culture" mean given this old woman's complex responses? **Discourse and practice:** shift terminology to this, away from culture. intended to enable us to analyze social life without presuming the degree of coherence. Practice is associated, in anthropology, with Bourdieu, whose theoretical approach is built around problems of contradiction, misunderstanding, and misrecognition, and favors strategies, interests, and improvisations over the more static and homogenizing cultural tropes of rules, models, and texts. Discourse has more diverse sources and meanings in anthropology. In its Foucauldian derivation, as it relates to notions of discursive formations, apparatuses, and technologies, it is meant to refuse the distinction between ideas and practices or text and world that the culture concept too readily encourages. In its more sociolinguistic sense, it draws attention to the social uses by individuals of verbal resources. In either case, it allows for the possibility of recognizing within a social group the play of multiple, shifting, and competing statements with practical effects. Cultural essentialism: It makes it seem like cultures are: Timeless..... but they are always changing, Homogenous..... but they are heterogenous, Discrete and fundamentally different...but there are interconnections between groups. It can lead to: Stereotypes, The creation of hierarchies between groups, Domination Contemporary anthropologists approach "culture" carefully: Helps us understand diversity, and not assume our own ways of life are "natural". Don't make sweeping generalizations about a groups or "cultures". Write "ethnographies of the particular" to avoid creating the impression of homogeneity and timelessness, In telling stories about particular individuals in time and place; Examine "phenomena of connection" to show how particular communities are situated within global processes, No one community is an isolated unit. Focus on structure and agency. Intersectionality: an analytic framework for thinking about how social structures of power cannot be separated from one another, but operate in tandem to shape people's lives in various way. Agency: People's ability to act on their will and produce effects to shape the direction of their lives. People can contest structures through overt actions (e.g. protests) or more subtle ones (e.g. bending norms); Anthropologists explore the tension between structure and agency Migration: To move from one place to another to live there, Humans have always been mobile. No cultural group has ever been truly isolated. Estimated 1 billion immigrants in the world today. International migration: moving between countries. Emigrate: leave country. Immigrate: move to a country. Internal migration: moving within a country. Around 37% of Singapore's population consists of international migrants. Around 2.16 million people. Often from global south (less powerful countries, often colonised) to global north (more politically and economically powerful, often colonisers), rural to urban areas. Patterns shaped by colonial legacies and globalisation processes. Colonialism: Started in Europe about 15^th^ century. When a state extends political, economic, and military power over a region beyond its own border; primarily motivated by economic gain (Extraction of labour and resources, Forced removal of indigenous people, Violent imposition of cultural norms). Created vast power imbalances on a global scale that continue to this day. Globalisation: The increased movement of money, people, goods, and ideas within and across national borders. Linked to changes in the global capitalist economy starting in the 1970s. Growth in migration. 14. People migrate for a vast variety of reasons - Based on individual needs and aspirations, But also by structural factors e.g. latino Migrants fleeing poor conditions to seek a better life. US cold war interventionism destabilised latam and central America. Contributing to these conditions. Social structures shape: Reasons for migration, Migration policies and practices, How migrants are treated e.g. political structures and important factors like colonial history, laws, leadership, conflicts. Economic structure like incorporation into global capitalist economy, livelihoods, types of goods produced, demand for certain kinds of labour e.g. Mexican farmworkers in the US. NAFTA in 1994 drove down crop prices in Mexico, farmers and others sought work, higher wages in US. US needed agricultural labour since citizens didn't wanna do these jobs. Barriers to migration: States' policies regarding migration constrain movement, often limit migrant access to resources and opportunities. (Many states have increased border security; very profitable industry. Border security doesn't deter migrants, just makes journeys more perilous Ex: sea voyages across the Mediterranean; trekking across the desert on the Mexico-US border. Such Migrants face Very low wages; sometimes paid piece rate (i.e. based on how much they do), Often barred from unionizing, high rates of injury, illness, and pain, often not provided with healthcare or other benefits); Obtaining official documentation is expensive and complicated, and can be impossible; Irregular migration: movement that takes place outside the regulatory norms of the sending, transit, and/or receiving country, face risk of deportation. Gonzales Lives in Limbo: the power of legal citizenship and to question its limits for certain groups. The worlds of undocumented Mexican youth are framed by these widespread racial and cultural constructions of Mexicans as "illegals": as criminals and unwelcome outsiders. As I explain below, the strategies college-goers devised for managing stigma involved trying to conceal undocumented status and working to assert counternarratives of themselves as educational achievers and community members. Ironically, though many reported feeling angry over having been lied to in childhood, they adopted lying as a daily survival strategy, making up excuses for their sudden withdrawals from school and/or peer activities. Safety and security, to have a place. One set of arguments contends that there are not enough resources to go around and that Latino immigrants are taking more than their fair share.18 Specifically, Latinos allegedly take jobs that otherwise would be fi lled by "real Americans." They also allegedly take unfair advantage of publicly available social services and drain taxpayers' monies. Equally forceful are arguments that cast Latino immigrants as cultural invaders threatening an American way of life. This position asserts the existence of a core "American" culture that is Anglo and Protestant and that is jeopardized by the presence of Mexicans. *Liminality* refers to the ambiguous space individuals occupy as they move from one key point in their lives to the next. It is a "betwixt and between stage."7 When migrants leave their former homes and social groups, Chavez suggests, they experience a separation from a way of life. But as they make the clandestine crossing into the United States, their newly acquired undocumented status presents several legal constraints that prohibit them from a successful legal incorporation. They remain in a liminal stage indefinitely. exclusion felt like being cast out. They faced a painfully disorienting disconnect between their longheld sense of belonging and their present reality. The college-goers especially grew up believing that their successful acculturation and educational attainment ensured their social membership. Now they confronted increasingly frequent experiences of exclusion. Many described feeling unprepared for the dramatic limitations on their rights but learning to take precautions nonetheless. For undocumented youth, the transition to adulthood is more complicated. As these young people leave adolescence, they enter the condition of illegality. This dramatic shift occurs because changes in the life course reposition the 1.5 generation, putting young adults into closer contact with legal exclusions. 16. Class background of the migrant shapes their access to money, education, etc. In turn, this effects their experience in the host country e.g. Work Permit (issued to "semi-skilled" workers: Can only work for the employer that applied for WP, Can only reside at the address set by the employer Cannot bring family members, Cannot marry a Singaporean citizen or PR, Cannot get pregnant or deliver a child, Cannot apply for Permeant Residency) versus Employment Pass holders (issued to "professional" workers -- none of the same restrictions apply. Money and connections needed to meet requirements, easier for upper class) in Singapore. Gender: Gender norms shape who migrates, for what kind of work, and what their obligations are to family back home Ex: globally, 75% of migrant domestic workers are women. In many contexts, domestic labour is "women's work". Furthermore, As more women are employed outside the home, more demand for domestic workers. Domestic work: Ambiguity regarding duties, hours, and behavior; The private nature of work means exploitation often remains hidden; Reshapes the lives of their families in their home countries. Yaya (Cheung): Spend 1 free day a week in public areas. Work 16 hours a day, around 550 USD per month - Legally required to live with employers, sleeping often in kitchens, storage rooms, or with children. Called Yaya (meaning caretaker/nanny), instead of her name Teresita, living in 5 square meter room. Worked in Hong Kong for half her life over 30 years. Initially chef, then became baby caretaker. Had to cut her hair for the job. Why? - Human rights Watch: amongst the most exploited and abused workers despite their important roles. Secret engine to economy. Upholding the household/home so parents could work (potty trained Justin, paid 10x more attention to kids than father, like a robot carrying out her mission, treated kids like her own, pampers the mom like friends, even making dad feel excluded. Talk, sing/dance, and inside jokes. Encouraged mom at her concert). Not included in the pictures of their "picture-perfect" family and celebrations. - In Hongkong, her identity is complicated, but at home she is a hero, a mother, grandma, wife, etc. Living in background, contradictory rls, loved like a family, but eat at diff table, don't help with dishes, contrast with moments with family or lack thereof. These moments they stole from her blood family. - Called a member of the family, more than a helper. But unfair rls. she calls him and his siblings her children too. They wrote her bday cards. Bday present gave her cash, some small amounts. She keeps all their memories. She couldn't get visa to follow him to US like the rest of the family when he went to college. So not really part of the family. Still calls the mom ma'am though. - Comfortable lie: didn't really know yaya. Hadnt seen photos of her when she was young. How she met her husband etc. First time seeing her with a man, finally seeing how much she misses and is separated from. He asks himself Would they be tgt if it wasn't for her work w justin's family? "Remember me" lyrics he sang in karaoke. Justin reflects on his brattiness as a kid and taking her for granted. Being difficult and wanting her to be around at 3am in the morning as a kid to accompany him to sleep. - Husband cheated on her, she forgives him for at least staying to care for kids. A lot of families broken due to this when wives go abroad to work and husbands leave/cheat and even abandon kids. Rarely mentioned him to justin's family. Cried talking about leaving family when kids started high school. Want to give them a better future. Sacrifice. Before she worked in the fields, all farmers. At first they decided together she should go, but then he didn't want her to. He then drank and went partying, children left at home with grandparents/relatives who advised and took care of them. Her kids couldn't push through with studies. Still calls him good husband, he says shes precious to him and he loves her. - Justin Cheung Went to Philippines w yaya. Happy to see her husband and grandkids. Haven't seen them in years. No faucet/tap water like in hongkong, got to well with buckets. Only seen yan yan 8 times, graduated twice. She calls it the fruit of her sacrifice, dreams fulfilled for her grandkids to all finish uni. Grandkids jealous of her time with other kids, but reminded that she loves them. - Mr and Mrs Cheung gave her bonus and she could use it to build infrastructure in her community/neighbourhood like churches and bury halls. She says its thanks to them they get to upgrade. Also helped her granddaughter yan yan to study to become a nurse. Her grand kids call her the strongest person, crying about how she sacrificed to help them get educated. They want her to retire and finally rest, shes done her part. Want to spend more time with her, take care of her. They hug and thank each other for that. So many changes and projects since she left. - Yaya loves planting, veggie garden and flowers. Wants to live in her home forever but gotten used to working and staying with Mr and Mrs Cheung as she calls them. Still employer rls. Justin promised to let her or pay for her to come back every 6 months or 1 year. Where is home and family for her now? She still missed Justin's mom when she was in Philippines. Bored and didn't have things to do family didn't want her to help w housework. She prefer to have work. She has a roof garden "paradise" in Hong Kong too. Her babies are plants now since all kids grown up. - Her story isn't over, still working to pay for grandkids education. What happens after though 19. Race/ethnicity: Migrants are often racial/ethnic "others" in the host country, Frequently face racism at both the individual and systemic levels. E.g. Turkish migrants in Germany. Subject to racist remarks and hate crimes. Children of migrants who are raised in Germany and are citizens are often not considered "German". Systemic discrimination in job hiring and housing. Far-right political parties with racist, anti-immigrant platforms. Broader significance: Migration shapes the lives of non-migrants too e.g. Family histories of migration, Food and goods consumed, Services provided, Political debates. Makes us confront difference and inequality Ex: COVID disproportionally affected migrants. Ans: Option 1 Politics: How people organize their collective affairs; The distribution of power within and between groups (and individuals); Power can be maintained through force/coercion or hegemony. Politics are everywhere e.g. Publicly defined institutions and activities; Daily informal relations Hegemony: the ability of a dominant group to make its own interests/values seem like "common sense" Ex: CEOs should earn many more times than other workers Forms of Political organisation: Authority (socially approved use of power. Types -- charismatic: recognition of an individual's attributes, traditional: based on established customs, legal: based on formal rules e.g. pope has all of them), Law (the means by which members of a grp regulate their behaviour and settle disputes: codified -- formal written rules and enforcement mechanisms, customary -- informally known rules and enforcement), Economy (the way resources/goods are produced, distributed, and consumed -- can't separate politics from economic organisation), Stratification (The unequal distribution of power and resources among members of a group; Stratification can be along the long lines of class, gender, race, age, etc. Less stratification: anarchic/egalitarian political organization e.g. Batek -- no permeant forms of authority, limited forms of temporary charismatic authority for who is right for the particular task/situation, customary law, conflict resolution and decision made through consensus. Economic system based on sharing -- giving/taking goods from an undifferentiated group and reciprocity -- exchange of goods with other individuals, no stratification based on positions of class/gender/authority, a little based on age); More stratification: hierarchical political organization e.g. politics in contemporary states. State: an autonomous regional structure of political, economic, and military rule with a central permanent government authorized legally to make codified laws, enforce them, and use force to maintain order and defend its territory. Many flavours: Monarchy, theocracy, etc. Monitor and control citizen behaviour. Economic systems vary but mostly capitalist. Stratification along multiple lines. Nation-states: A state where the population has some sense of shared culture, ancestry, and/or destiny as a people; States date back thousands of years; Nation-states arose in the past few hundred years. Nationalism: People in power shape a national identity by creating national: Dress, Art forms, Food, Symbols, traditions, values, historical narratives. Aims to promote loyalty to the nation-state; Creates distinctions between those who "belong" to the nation and those who "don't"; Can lead to violence against citizens of other nation-states as well as perceived "others" within the nation-state Ex: Nazi Germany. Political organisation changes: Nation-states dominant today. Leads to Hegemonic idea that nation-states are "normal". However, Anarchic organization for the vast majority of human history. Contemporary anarchic societies are not relics of the past. Resistance (Corntassel): Groups may work to "turn away" from states e.g. Indigenous peoples' movements across the globe, solidary rally against Coastal GasLink, Canada. Contestation: Within states, people often contest issues related to authority, law, economics, and stratification. May do so through formalized means (e.g. elections) or using other strategies (e.g. protests). Indigenous peoples engage in forms of diplomacy in distinct ways that illustrate a turning away from the state. When Indigenous peoples decenter the state, they are also rede\$ning what international entails, which challenges the false, Westphalian distinctions of what constitutes domestic versus international political action. Indigenous international relations persist despite state attempts to confine Indigenous nations to an "internal" or domestic status within state borders. turning away from the state, which includes heteropatriarchy and settler colonialism, entails a centering of Indigenous nationhood and land-based governance, but it is not a wholesale disengagement with state actors. Instead, those nations and communities activating resurgence invite engagement and solidarity through their actions and articulations of their relational responsibilities. By making settler populations uncomfortable/feel inconvenienced, Tyendinaga Mohawks, for example, are sending a powerful message about acts of solidarity and relationships. As Elliott and others point out, spaces of resurgence embody reciprocity by centering Indigenous nationhood and inviting settlers to engage in solidarity actions on Indigenous terms. Practitioners of resurgence turn away from the state and also strategically engage with state actors. Alternatives: People create communities/institutions intentionally organized in less hierarchical ways e.g. FaSinPat - Worker-owned tile factory in Argentina, Group decision-making, All workers receive the same salary Bureaucracy: governing tasks are divided and carried out by people in different positions Gupta: The analysis leads me to question Eurocentric distinctions between state and civil society and offers a critique of the conceptualization of "the state" as a monolithic and unitary entity. People such as Sharmaji collapse this distinction not only between their roles as public servants and as private citizens at the site of their activity, but also in their styles of operation.27 One has a better chance of finding them at the roadside tea stalls and in their homes than in their offices. Whereas modernization theorists would invariably interpret this as further evidence of the failure of efficient institutions to take root in a Third World context, one might just as easily turn the question around and inquire into the theoretical adequacy (and judgmental character) of the concepts through which such actions are described. In other words, if officials like Sharmaji and the village development worker are seen as thoroughly blurring the boundaries between \"state\" and \"civil society,\" it is perhaps because those categories are descriptively inadequate to the Iived realities that they purport to represent. Studying the state ethnographical ly involves both the analysis of the *everyday practices* of local bureaucracies and the *discursive construction* of the state in public culture. it allows the state to be disaggregated by focusing on different bureaucracies without prejudging their unity or coherence. Gupta instead focuses on local, everyday practices by studying the state ethnographically, in small towns. These are sites where most citizens come into contact with the state and where their "images of the state are forged." Gupta uses a series of "vignettes," which highlight the interactions of rural people with bureaucratic officials, to "give a sense of the local level functioning of 'the state' and the relationship that rural people have to state institutions." These stories illustrate the prevalence, nature and nuances of corruption in India. One such story describes Sharmaji, an official who keeps land records. People come to his "office" to conduct transactions such as adding or deleting names to land titles, dividing up land, and settling fights. These transactions "cost money" but the rates are generally "well-known and fixed." Gupta emphasizes the "performative aspect" of these transactions that has to be mastered; while giving bribes is commonplace, the way in which a bribe is given is nuanced, requiring cultural capital. Therefore, government services are often inaccessible to villagers, not only because of cost but also because of the difficulty in "\[negotiating\] deftly for those services." The story revolves around two young men who bungle a negotiation for adding a name to a plot of land. The men claim that they will just do the paperwork themselves before realizing that Sharmaji is extremely well-connected, whereas relations between the men and the headman (whose signature they need) are not good. The result is that they will likely have to come back to Sharmaji, and in the process they will have to pay more than the going rate to get the same services. Such a story illuminates how, in some cases, "state officials \[get\] the better of \[...\] inexperienced clients." On the other hand, members of a lower class can appeal to the authority of people "higher in the bureaucratic hierarchy." Such is the case of Sripal, a villager selected for a housing program by the village headman, Sher Singh. He has to pay a lot of money out of pocket for transportation of materials, and he never receives the reimbursement for his own labor cost. In the end, he can't even live in the house because he does not have material for a door and a window. When Sripal complains about the headman, Singh threatens to beat him up. Sripal writes a letter to the highest administrative authority in the area about the threat, and the police investigate. This story demonstrates that "even members of the subaltern classes have a practical knowledge of the multiple levels of state authority." They can use the multiple layers of the state to their advantage by pitting organizations against each other. Gupta then goes on to discuss the "discourse of corruption" in public culture, using reports in local and national newspapers to analyze how "the state" is imagined. Finally, Gupta discusses the "imagined state," arguing that the government is being constructed in the "imagination and everyday practices of ordinary people." Because higher officials are the ones who punish local officials for corrupt behavior, citizens tend to have a "hierarchical vision of the state," whereby higher officials are seen as "benevolent and charitable" and local officials are seen as corrupt. Gupta also notes that local people's analysis of state events often reflects the discourse that is disseminated by the mass media, and is therefore "translocal." Gupta argues that corruption may not be a dysfunctional aspect of the state, but rather a means by which the state is constructed. After the police visit, Sher Singh made peace with Sripal. He even hired Sripal to construct a home for another person under the same program. At the same time, he appeared defeated in the end by the procedures of a bureaucracy whose rules he could not comprehend. Sripal was among those beneficiaries of \"development\" assistance who regretted ever accepting help. He became deeply alienated by the very programs that the state employed to legitimate its rule. The implementation of development programs therefore forms a key arena where representations of the state are constituted and where its legitimacy is contested. Bharatiya Kisan Union (Indian Peasant Union) organized to \"arrest\" the officials, tying them to trees, and making them do \"sit-ups. or camp out on their lawns. refused to pay electricity dues (up to 60 percent of agricultural sector dues remain unpaid in a nearby district) and forced \"corrupt\" officials to return money allegedly taken as bribe In this manner, the BKU is able to influence officials to cater to their needs without bribery. the state operates in a discrete manner and is not necessarily a coherent body. Instead one must interact with several agencies/entities. He emphasizes that although corruption is more visible at the lowest levels of the state, higher-level state officials still may participate in corruption by extracting higher bribes from a smaller number of individuals. Yet (and it is this seemingly contradictory fact that we must always keep in mind) it is precisely through the practices of such local institutions that a translocal institution such as the state comes to be imagined. It is often claimed that even well-designed government programs fail in their implementation, and that the best of plans founder due to widespread corruption at the lower levels of the bureaucracy. If this is intended to explain why government programs fail, it is patently inaccurate (as well as being class-biased). For it is clear that lower-level officials are only one link in a chain of corrupt practices that extends to the apex of state organizations and reaches far beyond them to electoral politics (Wade 1982, 1984, 1985). Politicians raise funds through senior bureaucrats for electoral purposes, senior bureaucrats squeeze this money from their subordinates as well as directly from projects that they oversee, and subordinates follow suit. The difference is that whereas higher-level state officials raise large sums from the relatively few people who can afford to pay it to them, lower-level officials collect it in small figures and on a daily basis from a very large number of people. It is for this reason that corruption is so much more visible Ans: Option 4 Economy: A set of social relations, activities, ideas, and technologies that make possible the production, exchange, and consumption of resources/goods. Inseparable from social relations; Inseparable from the way power is distributed (politics) Exchange: How goods and labour are distributed. Multiple types of exchange can occur within a society, but one type will be more predominant. Exchanges shape and are shaped by norms and social relations. Sharing - (Giving/taking of goods from an undifferentiated group, prevents people from being indebted to others, Reduces the possibilities for power imbalances e.g. Howell and Lillegraven's article Howell's piece provides hope, demonstrating how societies can appreciate values beyond individual/material accumulation to holistically balance/inform economic pursuits. For example, the Chewong abandoned government "modernisation" efforts, emphasising/preferring egalitarianism and autonomy. Admittedly, this is increasingly difficult/counter-intuitive, as seen in Chewong interactions with \"modernity\" over time. Distrust and withdrawal from outsiders. Immediate gratification society. Focus on current needs, spending all. Reciprocity: exchange of goods/services between people or groups e.g. Generalized: giving without expectation of specific return, Balanced: giving with expectation of roughly equal return, Negative: giving while trying to maximize one's personal gain. Redistribution: Centralized collection of goods from members of a group, followed by division of those goods among members of the group. Ex: Potlaches, 19th century North America - Chief hosts a feast; members of the group bring food/goods which are redistributed; Provides resources; bolsters the status of the chief. Repressed by US and Canadian governments from the late 19th until mid 20th century. People have revived the practice since then. Market exchange: Buying and selling of commodities (physical objects or intangible goods bought/sold/traded e.g. knowledge, carbon, music), defined in terms of exchange value (what a commodity can exchange for e.g. an amount of money) vs use value (utility of a good, what it does/can do) - Often monetized, i.e. money is used as the medium of exchange. Impersonal form of exchange; social relations between parties don't matter (hypothetically) Contra other forms of exchange, in which social relations are key Commodification: the process of turning something into a commodity. Capitalism: Economic system based on market exchange of commodities, most often produced in factories. Everyone depends on market exchange to meet their needs. Predicated on the idea of private property/ownership. First arose in the countryside of England in the 15th and 16th centuries; Gains more traction during the industrial revolution in Europe in the 18th-19th centuries; As capitalism developed, the imperatives to reinvest and expand increasingly drove European colonialism and the transatlantic slave trade; Over time, various theories of the role the state should play in regulating capitalism (see below e.g. neoliberalism) Means of production: Land, resources, equipment, facilities, etc. needed to produce goods. A few people own the means of production (bourgeoisie); Most people don't (proletariat). Surplus value: Without the means of production, most people have to sell their labor (i.e. work for wages). These workers create surplus value, but the owner gets to keep it. E.g. Sugar in Cambodia - British-owned sugar plantations forced Cambodian subsistence farmers off their land. Had to work on the sugar plantation to meet basic needs Reinvestment: The owner of the means of production reinvests surplus value into production of more goods for - Accumulation of new resources (environmental impacts), Changes in technologies of production, out-compete others making the same commodity. Expansion: Increasing sale of commodities is limited - Workers can never buy as much as can be sold, because their wage is worth less than their output. Problem is overcome by seeking out new people to purchase commodities. 1. Commodity fetishism (Redmon): Commodities take on a "magical" quality - no knowledge of their production. Social relations between producers and consumers are hidden. Mardi Gras: Annual celebration with roots in Christianity, popular in new orleans, parades, throwing beads. In exchange for nudity. Since 1978. Contrast with china deng xiaping opening china's free market economy since that year too. Coincided. Producing beads since 1980s. Brought 150 million rural migrants into vulnerable economic conditions. Video shows contrast of workers in poor conditions with the partiers none the wiser, totally enjoying. "Physical labour vs physical fun" Street partiers don't know where the beads came from ("bead company", joking they don't care just wanna have a good time, don't bring my conscience into this. Worker only make 10 cents an hour. He says don't care just wanna enjoy. For another person, he says its fine because 10 cents is alr a lot for those workers, may be more than other place. An MBA student said this. It's just how capitalism and markets work. Some street partiers feel its no longer fun, the beads mean nothing to them, but the work is so consuming for the Chinese. Want to take the beads off. Guilty. Compare sol and feel its unfair. Dom Carlone: owner of US company mardi gras madness and accent annex, 13 mil a year salary -- says Chinese prolly thinks americans are crazy. 500 dollars to ride a float and party with paraphernalia, says the Chinese workers don't make that in a month. Says factories look like concentration camps. Get paid for what they accomplish. Extra money for extra hours. Says its good because theyre focused on earning money, factory can hear a pin drop, no talking no nonsense, says it works for the Chinese. Like it's their desire. 1. Workers fined one entire day pay for talking while working. Beads made from polystyrene and polyethylene, petroleum products. Narcoutic and CNS toxin. Occupational sagfety and health. May cause cancer when melted and inhaled, shows the factory doing exactly that. Showed the workers mardi gras pics, asking them where they go after they make the beads, workers assume overseas. The workers don't know what people do with the beads. Ask how much they cost to buy in the us, 1-20 dollars, Chinese workers go wow, we only make 62 a month. "How does that happen", its unfair but we have no choice, we cant sell them only make them. Price of one necklace is 3 months salary. For each necklace, 1 cent for 12 necklances. Showed the nudity, they laugh, careful not to get pics dirty. Laugh at the cultural differences, says they crazy for doing so much for beads, saying the beads mean nth to the workers. There's rice to eat today. Monkey figurine with covering eyes, see no evil analogy? Roger Wong, chinense tai kuen bead factory that profits 1.5 mil a year. Made in china label as per us regulation. Every worker wear red hat, easier to see. Chalkboard to show quantity produced everyday. Check workers' progress. List showing minimum quota to produce everyday, owner thinks they will work slow or go toilet, list says if u meet the standard u get 10% more pay. If you don't, 5% punishment. Laughs about factory worker human right to go toilet. Hong Mei, been working since 14, now 18 in video. 4^th^ year of work? In video. Gets up at 6, brush teeth, wash up, eat bfast, work at 645. Talks about how to use machine, must turn off when leaving. Fined if forgotten. Exclaims how dirty the machine is. Over 200 pounds of beads in 1 day. Safety issues of hand cut off in machine if not careful. One day normally 11 hours, but adding on mealtime is 14 hours. Pay cut at the end of the day if quota not met. Doesn't even think the beads look good, cant believe they strip and expose themselves for it. Says theyre ugly not worth it. Big pile of trash in the us streets, transition of beads spinning into the trash cleaning truck's wheel. Majority of beads theown away, made in china paper on the floor. Narration of anonymous bead workers, asking boss to stop punishing them. Not asking anyone to stop buying, they need to work so they can make money, but also want punishment to stop, want minimum wages, stop overtime. Against the backdrop of mardi gras aftermath of litter all over, just blowing. Says xiexie at the end of the letter. Machine noises juxtaposed with loud party scenes, staring at them out the window. 54. Ans: Option 3. Neoliberalism: In the mid-20th century, theories that posited that states should regulate capitalism and provide services for citizens were shunned. In the 1970s in the US and the UK, neoliberalism become a dominant economic theory instead. Posits that the state's sole function should be to protect private property rights, competitive markets, and free trade. In the 1980s and '90s, countries in the Global South pressured to adopt neoliberal economic policies e.g. Structural Adjustment Programs: loans provided by international financial institutions with contingencies. Neoliberal capitalism widespread today. State cutbacks - Deregulation; reduced worker, consumer, and environmental protections, Defunding of social welfare programs. Privatisation - Public assets and services become owned by private companies; Service provision about maximizing profits. Flexible accumulation: Flexible strategies companies use to accumulate profits, enabled by communication and transportation technologies e.g. Outsourcing, Offshoring. Generally from the Global North to the Global South Casualization of labour: Workers are employed in a non-permanent and/or non-full-time capacity, Global trend across many sectors, Companies can pay these workers less, and can avoid spending money on worker benefits, Workers have fewer to no legal protections and rights to unionize. E.g. platform/gig workers, Even higher wage \"prestigious\" areas like adjunct profs for 1 sem instead of a permanent prof, Gig/sharing/platform/on-demand economy (ravenelle): A system where companies connect people for the purpose of distributing goods and services. Workers are not employees, but are temporary independent contractors. Created labour conditions similar to those in the past. critiques neoliberalist 'logic' by examining the contradictions between the promises of the 'gig' economy and the lived experience of the 'gig workers' under the 'sharing economy'. The 'sharing economy' promises workers flexible working hours, and to have their earnings limited only by their efforts. This stems from neoliberalist 'logic', which believes that government deregulation will help markets become more competitive, allowing hardworking individuals to succeed. Such deregulation promotes the casualisation of labor, where companies utilize non-permanent labor allowing them to save on costs such as insurance and full-time wages. However, the experiences of workers differ greatly from the promises given. Alexandrea argues that these developments are a 'movement forward to the past', with workers having fewer workplace protections and working longer hours for lesser pay. In particular, she highlights her interviewee Sarah's experience with TaskRabbit, a site which demanded workers accept 85% of gigs offered, and for workers to accept jobs within 30 minutes of the offer. Such requirements reduce promised worker flexibility, reducing individual leisure time and increasing on-call availability without reciprocal pay. Workers who fail such demands are penalized, being removed from the search algorithm making it harder to find future work. This highlights the illusory nature of neoliberal 'entrepreneurship', where workers are forced to assume additional unpaid work of branding themselves and taking work, but are still beholden to a larger company who can cut them off at any time, ultimately increasing worker exploitation. Lastly, Alexandrea acknowledges the widening income inequality in America as a consequence of such neoliberalist logics. The ratio of pay between high-level executives and the common worker had increased sevenfold since 1979, and 72% of households carried credit card debt. She laments that the 'sharing economy' which promised to bring people together had instead increased the divide, and how hard-fought legal improvements to workplace conditions have been quickly circumvented. what we presume as progress may ironically be reverting backwards to precarious, casualised socioeconomic/labour conditions. Leads to Precarity: Elites accumulate more resources, leading to vast economic inequality, Increasing precarity for many; A condition of existence without security or predictability. Without security, it is hard to meet one's basic needs, let alone achieve upward mobility. Produces anxiety Financialization: Expansion of financial institutions (e.g. banks, stock brokerages, insurance companies), Increasing numbers of people in debt via credit cards, microfinance, insurance policies, etc. Finance has become a major means of generating profit, as opposed to being in relation to some commodity, the finance itself is the means e.g. financial products. Neoliberal logics (Cheng): Focused on individual achievement. Idea that if people just work hard enough, they can "make it", Poverty is blamed on the moral failings of individuals (but it is a structural issue). All aspects of life come to reflect principles of the market. Competition and choice are seen as inherently beneficial; Everything can and should be commodified e.g. dog walking companies or even companies advertising to help people with branding. People need to "brand" themselves; Activities are assessed based on their "return on investment"; Success is synonymous with wealth. private degree students remain trapped within dominant economic systems, reproducing neoliberal norms despite trying to find solutions/alternative paths. For example, many remain fixated on making oneself employable, disparaging "skivers". Joining ccas. Believing in their superiority over public uni students due to other factors.