Quarter 2 Lecture Notes PDF

Gen. Vicente Alvarez St., Zamboanga City SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL UNIT Local nos. (062) 991 – 4277, (062) 991 – 1676, Telefax: 992 – 3045 Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formulation Recall pu...

Gen. Vicente Alvarez St., Zamboanga City SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL UNIT Local nos. (062) 991 – 4277, (062) 991 – 1676, Telefax: 992 – 3045 Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formulation Recall purpose of research The need to provide possible answers or suggestive explanations – can be tested by experiments, observations, or surveys – show the variables used in the study – expressed in the form known as null hypothesis What is a hypothesis? an educated guess a conjecture or proposition about the solution to a problem a tentative relationship between two or more variables, or the status of a situation based on the available facts or information that the researcher already knows Example: If one student fails to show up for her class on a Monday morning, the teacher could make conjectures as to why she failed to attend her class. Possible Problem: What are the factors that contribute to the absence of Student A on Monday Morning? Some Guesses, Conjectures, or Possible Explanations: The student is sick. An emergency came up in the family. The student didn’t finish her project. She met an accident on the way. The jeep broke down Etc. Hypothesis may be derived directly from the statement of the problem or from the related literature. Research Problem Example: Is there a relationship between achievement in math and interest in math of students in a secondary school? Hypothesis Example: There is a positive relationship between achievement in math and interest in math of students in a secondary school. A hypothesis implies an if-then logic. Most hypotheses can be put in if-then form to indicate the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Examples: If low achievers in mathematics attend remedial classes, then their performance in the mathematics achievement test will improve. If more exercises on solving situational problems are given, then the students will develop better mathematics skills in solving life problems in the future. The Criteria of a Good Hypothesis 1. The hypothesis should state an expected relationship between two or more variables. Page | 1  2. The researcher should have definite reasons based on either theory or evidence for considering the hypothesis worthy of testing. 3. A hypothesis should be testable. 4. A hypothesis should be brief, consistent, and clear. Hypothesis and Assumption Assumption – is a statement or assertion that can be taken to be true and likely to happen; it does not need to be tested, whereas a hypothesis needs to be tested, verified, confirmed, or rejected Examples of Assumptions: The result of the achievement test in Filipino subject is an accurate measurement of student performance in Filipino subject. The directors do a mediocre supervision of the teachers in their schools. The students are serious in answering the survey questionnaire. A person is a product of both of his heredity and his environment. Those students who took the test put in their normal if not their best performance. Constants, Variables, and Operational Definition constant – is a characteristic or condition that is the same for all individuals in the study variable – is a characteristic that takes on different value or conditions for different individuals Independent and dependent variables are descriptors of variables commonly used in educational research. The independent variables may be affecting the dependent variables, and in that sense, dependent variables depend on independent variables. Example 1: A study of teacher-student classroom interaction in different levels of schooling. Independent variable: Level of schooling, three categories – elementary, junior HS, senior HS Dependent variable: Score on a classroom observation inventory which measures teacher- student interaction Example 2: A study of location of school effect upon attitudes toward school of seventh-grade students. Independent variable: Location of school, three categories – urban, suburban, rural Dependent variable: Score on attitude toward school inventory Example 3: A study of the effects of type of material upon solving concept attainment problem. Independent variable: Type of material, two categories – figural, verbal Dependent variable: Time required to solve the concept attainment problems Example 4: A study of the professional attitude of men and women teachers. Independent variable: Gender of the teacher – male, female Dependent variable: Score on a professional attitude inventory Other Possible Types of Variables: organismic variable – is a pre-existing characteristic of the individuals under study; not a variable that can be randomly assigned to individuals; e.g., gender, intelligence Page | 2 intervening variable – is one whose inferred, but it cannot be manipulated or measured; other names are nuisance variables, mediator variables, confounded variables; e.g., learning style of students (in a study of teaching methods on achievement on Elementary algebra) control variable – is a variable other than the independent variables of primary interest whose effects are determined by the researcher; e.g., gender would be both a control and organismic variable (in a study of teaching methods on achievement on Elementary algebra) An operational definition is stipulative in that it specifies the operation or characteristics necessary to identify the variable or condition being defined Examples of Operational Definition: 1. Ability to learn: score on the LM Form of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 2. Science achievement: score on the science subtest on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills 3. Divergent thinking: score on the Brick Uses Test 4. Concept attainment performance: time required to solve correctly five concept attainment problems Types and Forms of Hypothesis Two Types of Hypotheses (Kerlinger, 1986) 1. Research or Substantive 2. Statistical Research Hypothesis is also referred to as substantive hypothesis a tentative proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or an observation of some expected state of affairs Page | 3  is a statement given by the researcher or problem solver regarding the relationship between the variables in the study Research Question Example: What are the grading practices and patterns of social science teachers in School A? Research Hypotheses Example: 1. The average grades of students in History are higher than their average grades in Social Studies. 2. The average grades of students in History and Archaeology are higher than their average grades in Psychology and Anthropology. 3. There is a positive relationship between grades in Political Science and Sociology. 4. There is a negative relationship between grades in mathematics and those in social science. Statistical Hypothesis is given in statistical form is a statement about one or more variables that are measured of the population of the study. is often expressed in quantitative form Research Question Example: What is the relationship between students’ career preference and their families’ socio- economic status? Research Hypothesis Example: Children of affluent families tend to prefer the professional careers while children of low-income families prefer vocational/technical training. Statistical Hypothesis Example: There is a significant relationship between students’ career preference and their families’ socio-economic status Types and Forms of Hypothesis Technically speaking, when a statistical hypothesis is being tested using inferential statistics, it is the null hypothesis that is being tested. Null Hypothesis Example: There is no significant relationship between students’ career preference and their families’ socio-economic status. Example of Initial Hypothesis: The mean reading achievement of the population of third-graders taught by Method A is greater than the mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B. Alternative Hypotheses: The mean reading achievement of the population of third-graders taught by Method A is less than the mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B. The mean reading achievement of the population of third-graders taught by Method A equals the mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B. (Null Hypothesis) Combining the 2 Hypotheses: The mean reading achievement of the population of third-graders taught by Method A is less than or equal to the mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B. Note: The null hypothesis is contained in this single alternative, and again all possible outcomes are covered. Page | 4 Types and Forms of Hypothesis Forms of Hypothesis 1. Directional 2. Non-Directional Examples of Directional Hypotheses: 1. There is a positive relationship between attitude towards chemistry and achievement in chemistry. 2. Male students score higher in risk taking than female students. 3. Single and young teachers tend to be more innovative in teaching than married and old teachers. 4. The science achievement of high-ability students exceeds that of average ability students. 5. As a teacher’s salary increases, his/her perception towards the administrative personnel also improves. Examples of Non-Directional Hypotheses: 1. Faculty morale is related to the frequency of promotions. 2. There is no relationship between attitude towards science and achievement in science. 3. The English achievement of high-ability students equals that of average-ability students. 4. There is no change in the pupils behavior before and after attending the Summer Camp. 5. There is no difference between young and single teachers and old and married teachers in their commitment to professional growth. Guidelines in Writing Good Hypothesis should be written after a research problem has been defined clearly and a review of related literature has been carried out should be written as a statement should be written in clear language and used as framework for the research important terms should be defined precisely before they are used in writing hypotheses should be written in the context of the variables’ operational definitions and conditions there could be more than one hypothesis in a study; may use as many hypotheses as needed should be done based on relevant theory and existing knowledge Page | 5