Quaratiello_CH3.docx

Fundamentals of Database Searching TYPICAL COFFEE DRINKERS WILL HAVE TO ANSWER MOST IF NOT all of the questions above to describe their preferred beverage at a coffee shop where the menu could potentially include hundreds of drinks (not even including tea, juice, soft drinks, and others). In order...

Fundamentals of Database Searching TYPICAL COFFEE DRINKERS WILL HAVE TO ANSWER MOST IF NOT all of the questions above to describe their preferred beverage at a coffee shop where the menu could potentially include hundreds of drinks (not even including tea, juice, soft drinks, and others). In order for customers to get their coffee the way they like it, multiple pieces of information need to be provided. The same is even more crucial when trying to find the sources you need from the millions of sources available online. Effectively searching an online database, which is any collection of information in an electronic format, is like ordering from a detailed menu and requires that you be very specific in describing what you want. When you use an internet search engine to search the surface web, you are basically searching the world’s largest database. That’s why a simple search can bring up millions of websites, many of them irrelevant. The basics of searching the surface web, however, are similar to searching more focused and subject-specific databases such as the ones accessible on your library’s website. Most of these databases are part of the deep web and can be accessed only by users with the proper login credentials. Searching these library resources is recommended because the information included in them has already been vetted by real live human beings. These databases are constructed by editors who make decisions about what content to include. They also provide descriptive files called records, which include information about every item in the database. In contrast, the surface web has no editorial control, and search engine results are full of links to questionable material that requires extensive evaluation. There are a number of general databases that libraries subscribe to which cover a broad range of academic topics, but many other library databases focus on one particular topic, a fact that is important because, as you progress in your studies, your research will require an increasing level of specialization. Using a subject-specific database is a more efficient and time-saving way of doing research than using an internet search engine that covers sites on many unrelated subject areas. Librarians select the databases that their library subscribes to based on the needs of its particular users. No library has the same combination of resources because each library is unique, with different emphases on certain subjects. At a college with a nursing program, for example, the library web- site should provide access to the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) so that students have access to all the latest nursing journals. Appendix B describes many of the databases currently used in academic libraries. TYPES OF DATABASES Each library website is different, and each has a unique collection of data- bases, but fundamentally they provide the same types of resources. Featured prominently on the home page should be a link to the online catalog, a large database providing information about all the items that the library owns. Another link on your library home page should provide direct access to all of its other available databases, which are usually categorized alphabetically and sometimes also by subject area if there are a lot of them. Some academic libraries have hundreds of databases. Your library website might simply have a link on its home page—such as Find Articles because articles are the primary type of resource available—that leads you to these databases. A growing trend is to have a search box featured on the library’s home page that searches all library databases as well as the online catalog simultane- ously. Although this box is alluring and convenient, I advise against using it exclusively because what you are basically doing is searching a mega-database, second only in size to the surface web itself. Similarly to using an internet search engine, you may likely end up with many irrelevant sources and far too much information to evaluate effectively. Periodical Databases A type of resource that is commonly available on library websites is the peri- odical database—a collection of records describing articles in magazines and journals. The information in these records will allow you to evaluate the sources found and determine whether or not you should read the full text, which is often just a click away. Figure 3.1 displays a record for a periodical article. FIGUR E 3 .1 Sample record of an article from a periodical database The way in which the information in an article record is displayed will vary depending on which database you are using, but these records will provide similar information. Each type of information about this item is contained in a field. Fields include Article title (or headline, in the case of a newspaper article). Author (staff-written articles might not specify an author). Periodical title (sometimes referred to as the “source”). Issue, volume, date, and/or page numbers, which may be needed to locate the article and cite it properly. The volume number generally refers to the year of publication. Volume 105 of Iowa Law Review, for example, refers to the 105th year the journal was published. Issue 1 is the first issue that appeared in 2019. Subject headings or terms (specialized subject headings such as geo- graphic terms or people may also be included). An article record might also include an abstract, which is a summary of the article. An advantage of library periodical databases is that most of them clearly distinguish scholarly from popular material, an essential distinction in academic research. You can also obtain the full text of many sources by using these databases. In contrast, when you use a search engine, you may be directed to a useful site that requires a fee for the complete text of a source; or if there is no charge for access, you may have to close numerous pop-up ad windows. Online Catalogs One type of database that all libraries have is an online catalog, which is a collection of information about the items owned by a particular library. Although a link called Online Catalog may be featured on the library’s home page, the catalog might be referred to in other ways, such as a Find Books link. On some library websites, an online catalog search box appears prominently on the library’s home page to allow you to search the catalog immediately. Online catalogs include more than just the books shelved in your library. Most can tell you if your library subscribes to certain journals or magazines, or if FIGUR E 3 . 2 Sample record for a book from an online catalog it provides access to a particular e-book, or which Academy Award–winning movies it has on DVD. Each item owned by your library, whether a book, a journal, a DVD, or some other medium, has a record in your library’s online catalog. Figure 3.2 is an example of a record for a book. The record for this same book may look different in two different library catalogs, but the information provided will be essentially the same. There are fields for the author, the title, the publisher, and so on. If the item is a print book, the following essential information is given so that you can locate it in the library: The call number, which indicates the book’s exact location. Other numbers are given in the record (ISBN, LCCN, etc.), but these are not usually needed by a student. The status, indicating whether the book is available or checked out. The location is often given, especially in a library that might have special collections in addition to its general collection or at a large university that has multiple libraries. A record for a book in the online catalog may also include its table of contents and a summary of the whole book. This information is useful in evaluating whether the book, or even a chapter, is relevant to your research. Also pay attention to the subject headings assigned to the item. As will be explained later, these will help you find related information. Reference Databases Other databases that may be available on your library website are electronic full-text versions of reference sources, including encyclopedias, dictionaries, and almanacs. Examples include Britannica Online, the electronic equivalent of the classic Encyclopedia Britannica, and Credo Reference, which is a database that includes over one hundred reference sources. Many of these sources will be discussed in chapter 7. SEARCHING DATABASES Databases can be composed of thousands or even millions of records. You find the records that pertain to your topic from out of this huge amount of information in two basic ways: by keyword and by subject. Keywords are words that appear anywhere in a database record, while subjects are standardized headings under which items are categorized. A subject search will locate only words in the subject field of the database’s records. Because search engine companies don’t compile detailed records for websites, the surface web can be searched only by keyword, another reason that so many irrelevant sources are found by search engines. Although it is more precise to find a book or article by subject, keyword searching is a good way to start your search, and it may ultimately be enough to fulfill your research needs for many assignments. Keyword searching allows you to search for single words or phrases, as well as for combinations of words and phrases, in just about any field. The principles discussed here form the basis of searching any computerized database and are actually even helpful for using internet search engines more effectively because the surface web can be searched only by keyword. Searching for Multiple Keywords Unless you have a very general topic, you need to know how to do a keyword search for multiple keywords. Keyword searching is invaluable for finding material on multidisciplinary subjects that are difficult if not impossible to define by one single subject heading. Keyword searching using more than one term or phrase operates according to the principles of Boolean logic, which were developed by George Boole, a nineteenth-century mathematician. The simple rules of Boolean searching can be used to define a topic very specifically so that, from among thousands or even millions of records in a database, you can find the ones that best meet your needs. Suppose you wanted articles concerning opioid addiction among veterans. You want all the records retrieved to contain both main terms. To understand Boolean logic, picture two sets: the first contains all the articles about veter- ans, and the second contains all those about opioid addiction. The articles that are about both veterans and opioid addiction form a common subset. It is best to include the Boolean connecting term AND in your search phrase because it is not always implied as it is when you use most internet search engines. When the search veterans and opioid addiction is entered, records that contain the two terms specified are retrieved. This set of records is illustrated in figure 3.3 in what is called a Venn diagram. The portion of this diagram in gray is the set representing records that include the terms veterans and opioid addiction. The more terms you link together, the narrower your search becomes and the fewer records you will retrieve. For instance, the search veterans and opioid addiction and treatment will retrieve a narrower set, as illustrated in figure 3.4. The portion of figure 3.4 that appears black is the set representing records that include the terms veterans and opioid addiction and treatment. The sections in gray indicate where only two of the three sets overlap. Notice that the black section in figure 3.4 is smaller than the gray portion in figure 3.3 because the number of articles found is even smaller. If you don’t find any records, or if you find only a few, try removing a search word. This will broaden your search. Or if you get too many, narrow your search by adding a term. You will find that keyword searching can often be a process of trial and error. Keyword Searching Using OR Another method for broadening a search is to use the connecting term OR. Picture a set containing all the sources about opioid addiction and another set containing all the sources about alcoholism. Some of these sources may certainly overlap in subject material covering both topics. But the set resulting from the search opioid addiction or alcoholism will contain not only the sources that address both topics but also those that are about one topic or the other. In figure 3.5, the entirety of both circles is gray, representing those sources that address both topics, as well as those that address just one of the topics. If you were to add another term to this search using OR, the outcome would be even larger because the more terms you link together with OR, the broader your search becomes; this is the opposite of what happens when using AND. If you wanted to find all the records containing any words beginning with environment (in addition to environment itself, this would include environments, environmental, environmentalists, etc.), you could string all of these words together with ORs between them, or you could simply enter environment*. This is called truncation, and it is basically a shortcut. With this technique, available in most databases, you drop the ending of a word and replace it with a truncation symbol. This symbol is usually the asterisk (*), but some databases might require a question mark (?) or hashtag (#). Truncation is particularly helpful when you want to retrieve both the plural and singular forms of a word; just substitute the truncation symbol for the s. In some databases you can do a wildcard search using the same symbol as for trun- cation within words to find variations. For instance, if you wanted to find either woman or women, you can enter wom*n, which would serve the same purpose as the lengthier woman OR women. Keyword Searching Using NOT Use the word NOT to eliminate irrelevant items. This is similar to using a minus sign (-) with an internet search and can be very helpful. NOT is used less often than AND and OR and is usually employed when previous searches bring up irrelevant information. For example, if you want to find articles about the presidential succession protocol known as the designated survivor, you might want to enter your search as designated survivor not sutherland. By doing this, you will not be inundated by dozens of irrelevant articles about the TV show in which the character played by Kiefer Sutherland suddenly becomes the president of the United States after a deadly explosion at the Capitol during the State of the Union address. In figure 3.6, the area in gray again represents the resultant set that eliminates the irrelevant records. Combining AND, OR, and NOT Advanced searching techniques that combine ANDs, ORs, and NOTs into one search will allow you to really hit the bull’s-eye. Advanced search entry forms simplify this process by providing multiple boxes in which to enter search terms. For example, figure 3.7 displays part of the advanced search screen used in databases published by EBSCO. Notice the two boxes that say AND and OR on the left side. These are pull-down menus that allow you to select any one of the three Boolean operators. By entering terms in the three text-entry boxes and specifying which Boolean operators you want to use, you can construct a more precise search of the database. Rows can be added if you need to make your search even more specific. Through advanced search options that will be explained in later chapters, many internet search engines and library databases have simplified this whole process even further by offering the options displayed in table 3.1. Order of Boolean Operators The example in figure 3.7 (on the previous page) displays a search for articles about obesity among children or teenagers. Literally, the search term set is obesity and children or teenagers. Will the resultant set of retrieved articles include ones about obesity among children as well as articles just about adolescents in general? That doesn’t sound like what you want, but the ambiguous search phrase could be interpreted in that way. Fortunately, in databases that can be searched using Boolean principles, the order in which the operators take effect begins with OR. This is similar to the mathematical order of operations acronym PEMDAS, which you might remember from high school algebra, which helped you remember that operations in parentheses should be performed first, followed by exponents, multiplication, and so on. The order in Boolean logic can be remembered using the simple acronym NOA (NOT, OR, AND). NOT takes precedence over both AND and OR, so if NOT appears in a search phrase, the term following NOT cannot appear in any of the retrieved records. In the previous example, obesity and children or teenagers, a set would first be formed of all the records containing children or teenagers; then a set con- taining all the records for obesity would be formed. In figure 3.8, the area in black (where all three terms overlap) and the areas in gray (where obesity overlaps with either children or teenagers) form the set of relevant records for this topic. Problems with Keyword Searching Although keyword searching can allow you to search a database with great precision, it does have disadvantages. The first problem is a lack of compre- hensiveness. Keyword searching does not necessarily retrieve every record on a subject. For example, in the search obesity and children or teenagers, some of the records pertaining to this search might not be found because instead of using the term teenagers, one overlooked article uses the term adolescents; another only mentions young adults. If you rely on keyword searching, it is important to think of all possible synonymous terms. Another drawback of keyword searching is the retrieval of peripheral or irrelevant material, which results from words being taken out of context. If you wanted a book about the architecture of Boston, for example, and were to enter boston and architecture in the online catalog, in addition to retrieving all the records for books about Boston architecture, you would also retrieve all the books about architecture that were published in Boston but not nec- essarily about Boston. Basic keyword searching generally picks up words throughout the record, including the publisher field. Because many records include abstracts or summaries, you might be very surprised to retrieve Neil DeGrasse Tyson’s Astrophysics for People in a Hurry while searching for a book about the history of coffee, but the summary of Tyson’s book (displayed in figure 3.2 earlier in the chapter) mentions reading the book while waiting “for your morning coffee to brew.” Field-Specific Searching To lessen the possibility of retrieving irrelevant or peripheral material, some databases allow you to limit your keyword searches to particular fields in a record. For example, for books about coffee or Boston architecture, you could indicate that you want to find these words only when they are located within the subject headings of records or within the titles. This would eliminate books that were published in Boston but are not about Boston or books about astrophysics that have absolutely nothing to do with coffee. Limiting keyword searches to subjects and titles is an excellent way to refine your search if you find that you have retrieved too many records or irrelevant records. You will probably have to use an advanced search screen to access this capability. Figure 3.7 also shows the pull-down menu provided in EBSCO databases that enables you to specify certain fields in which to search. The best fields to use in order to focus your search are title, subject terms, and abstract. But you may have to find an article in a particular journal, in which case searching the journal name field (SO for “source” in figure 3.7) would be helpful. Searching by Subject Despite the apparent ease of keyword searching, there is no better way to retrieve a complete list of relevant material than by subject searching. Although finding the appropriate subject heading is often a process of trial and error, it’s worth the effort. By finding the right subject heading, you eliminate the need to think of all the synonyms for your keywords. Internet search engines don’t let you search by standard subject headings as you can when searching online catalogs and periodical databases. Part of the reason you retrieve so much junk on the internet is because search engines have not assigned subject headings to websites. This would require a degree of artificial intelligence that is far beyond search engine technology right now. Fortunately, some human librarians have started to catalog internet resources in their online catalogs using a standard set of terminology used by all libraries to categorize their books: Library of Congress Subject Headings. Unfortunately, no such universal subject headings have been established to classify articles as has been done for books. Although some periodical databases have adopted Library of Congress headings, many have their own terminology. This lack of consistency makes searching multiple periodical databases more challenging because different subject headings may be used. But an easier way to determine appropriate subject headings in any database is to do a keyword search first and then look up the subject headings of the pertinent books or articles that you retrieve. This procedure will lead you to all the records categorized under a particular heading. This should be as easy as clicking on the appropriate subject headings. For example, the key- word search athletes and steroids in your library’s online catalog will retrieve some books that list doping in sports as a subject heading because that’s the standard phrase that the Library of Congress uses. Click on this heading to find all the books in the library about this subject. In upcoming chapters, more specific techniques will be explained for searching different types of databases that will each provide access to dif- ferent types of material. Although the order in which you search these types of databases doesn’t really matter, I consider periodical databases the best place to start because it is likely that you will find the most valuable sources there. Although you may be required to use scholarly journal articles in your assignment, books can also be very useful although they might not be essential for every essay, so knowing how to use the online catalog effectively is an essential research skill. Searching the internet will probably be the first thing you do, but the chapter on how to do that more successfully comes toward the end of this book. This placement reflects my philosophy regarding the superiority of articles and books to fulfill your research needs.