PLS 141 Exam Study Guide PDF

Definitions ​ Spoils System: The practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters as a reward for their loyalty. Primary Elections: Elections held to select a party’s candidate for the general election. General Elections: Elections where voters decide among candidates from differ...

Definitions ​ Spoils System: The practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters as a reward for their loyalty. Primary Elections: Elections held to select a party’s candidate for the general election. General Elections: Elections where voters decide among candidates from different parties to fill a government position. Whistleblower: A person who exposes wrongdoing within an organization, often within the government or a corporation. Super PACs: Political action committees that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to influence elections but cannot directly coordinate with candidates or parties. Regulatory Capture: A situation where a regulatory agency is dominated by the industries it is charged with regulating. Political Party: An organized group of individuals with shared goals and ideologies that seeks to influence public policy by electing candidates to office. Civil Servants: Government employees hired based on merit rather than political affiliation. Interest Group: An organization that seeks to influence public policy to benefit its members or causes. Appellate Courts: Courts that review decisions of lower courts to ensure proper application of the law. Iron Triangle: The policy-making relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies. U.S. Attorney: A federal prosecutor who represents the United States in legal cases within a specific district. Issue Networks: Informal, fluid networks of individuals and organizations focused on specific policy issues. The Rule of 4: The principle that at least four U.S. Supreme Court justices must agree to grant a writ of certiorari for a case to be heard. Intergovernmental Lobbying: Efforts by local, state, or regional governments to influence federal policy. Judicial Review: The power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional. Reverse Lobbying: Efforts by government officials to persuade interest groups or organizations to support government initiatives. Judicial Activism: When judges interpret the Constitution or laws in a way that reflects their personal views or modern values. Revolving Door: The movement of individuals between government positions and jobs in the private sector, often in industries they once regulated. Judicial Restraint: When judges defer to the decisions of elected officials and avoid making policy decisions. Establishment Clause: A provision of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion. Time, Place, and Manner Clause: Governmental restrictions on free speech that are justified by the need to maintain public order and safety. Free Exercise Clause: A provision of the First Amendment that protects individuals’ rights to practice their religion freely. Gerrymandering: Manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts to favor one party or group. Incumbent: A person currently holding a political office. Lemon Test: A three-pronged test used by courts to determine if a government action violates the Establishment Clause. Short Answer Questions U.S. Supreme Court Overview: Number of Judges: 9 (one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices). Rule of 4: At least four justices must agree to hear a case. Types of Opinions: Majority opinion: The official ruling of the court. Concurring opinion: A separate opinion by a justice agreeing with the majority but for different reasons. Dissenting opinion: An opinion by a justice who disagrees with the majority. ​ ​ Case Process: Cases typically reach the Supreme Court via appeals from lower courts or through original jurisdiction in rare cases. Gerrymandering ​ Definition: Drawing electoral district boundaries to benefit a particular political party. Techniques: ​ Cracking: Spreading a group’s voters across multiple districts to dilute their power. ​ Packing: Concentrating a group’s voters into one district to reduce their influence in others. Types of Lobbying Reverse Lobbying: Government officials persuading interest groups to support initiatives. Intergovernmental Lobbying: Local and state governments lobbying for federal funds or policies. Revolving Door: Former officials working as lobbyists in industries they once regulated or vice versa. Iron Triangle Parts: ​ Congressional committees or subcommittees. ​ Bureaucratic agencies. ​ Interest groups. ​ Function: These three entities work together to create and enforce policies that mutually benefit them. 5. Pluralists vs. Hyperpluralists ​ Pluralists: Believe multiple interest groups competing lead to balanced, democratic policy outcomes. ​ Hyperpluralists: Argue that too many competing groups result in policy gridlock and inefficiency. 6. Bureaucracy Strengths and Pathologies ​ Strengths: ​ ​ Expertise and specialization. ​ ​ Consistency in enforcing laws and policies. ​ ​ Pathologies: ​ ​ Red tape: Excessive regulations. ​ ​ Bureaucratic inertia: Resistance to change. ​ ​ Duplication: Multiple agencies doing the same work. ​ ​ Waste: Inefficient use of resources. Here are key concepts and answers to the topics you outlined: Bureaucracy Why has the bureaucracy grown over the course of American history? ​ increased demands for government services (e.g., welfare, healthcare, national defense) ​ Expansion of economic regulation during industrialization and the Great Depression. ​ New challenges like environmental protection and technological regulation. Advantages/Disadvantages of the Bureaucratic Model: ​ Advantages: Efficiency in handling complex tasks, specialization, consistent rules and policies. ​ Disadvantages: Red tape, inefficiency, lack of flexibility, potential for unaccountability. Who controls the federal bureaucracy? Main players: ​ Congress: Creates agencies, controls funding, oversight through hearings. ​ President: Appoints heads, issues executive orders. ​ Courts: Ensure agencies comply with the law. ​ The public and interest groups: Apply pressure for changes. What is “regulatory capture” and its link to “iron triangles”? ​ Regulatory capture: Agencies prioritize the interests of industries they regulate over the public. ​ Iron triangles: A mutually beneficial relationship between agencies, Congress, and interest groups that perpetuates regulatory capture. ​ Why has privatization and the use of contractors become a trend? ​ Efficiency and cost savings. ​ Reduced political accountability by outsourcing controversial tasks. Types of federal bureaucracies: ​ Executive departments (e.g., State, Defense). ​ Independent agencies (e.g., NASA, EPA). ​ Regulatory commissions (e.g., SEC, FCC). ​ Government corporations (e.g., USPS, Amtrak). What is the “principal-agent problem”? Conflict between the “principal” (e.g., Congress or the President) and the “agent” (bureaucrats), where the agent may not act in the principal’s best interests. Judiciary Trial vs. Appellate Courts: ​ Trial courts: Hear cases for the first time, determine facts. Appellate courts: Review decisions of trial courts for legal errors. How are state judges chosen in Michigan? ​ Nonpartisan elections. Candidates often have partisan endorsements. ​ Federal judges: Appointed by the President, confirmed by the Senate. Term of office for federal judges: ​ Lifetime tenure, as long as they maintain “good behavior.” Judicial review and its origin: ​ Power: Courts invalidate unconstitutional laws/actions.  Source: Marbury v. Madison (1803). Judicial activism vs. judicial restraint: Activism: Judges interpret laws broadly to address societal issues. ​ Restraint: Judges defer to elected branches unless a clear constitutional violation exists. Restraints on Court power: ​ Lack of enforcement power (depends on executive). ​ Congressional control over jurisdiction and structure. ​ Public opinion and legitimacy concerns. Types of U.S. Supreme Court opinions: ​ Majority: Binding decision of the Court. ​ Concurring: Agrees with the outcome but for different reasons. ​ Dissenting: Disagrees with the majority opinion. ​ Per curiam: Unsigned opinion by the Court. Why may the Supreme Court hear a case? ​ Conflicts in lower courts. ​ National importance. ​ Federal government involvement. Factors influencing judicial decisions: ​ Legal precedents, personal ideology, public opinion, and the political environment. Campaigns and Elections Primary vs. General Election: ​ Primary: Selects party nominees. ​ General: Elects candidates to office. Why incumbents win re-election: ​ Name recognition, access to campaign funds, and experience. Midterm elections: ​ Elections between presidential terms. ​ President’s party often loses seats due to dissatisfaction. Campaign funding: ​ PACs: Limited contributions, direct to candidates. ​ SuperPACs: Unlimited spending but cannot coordinate with candidates. ​ Direct contributions: Donations directly to campaigns, subject to limits. What determines presidential elections? ​ Economy, media coverage, campaign strategies, and voter turnout. Interest Groups and Political Parties Types of interest groups: ​ Economic, public interest, professional associations, single-issue groups. Why join interest groups? ​ Representation, advocacy, material benefits, social reasons. Lobbying the judicial branch: ​ Filing amicus curiae briefs. ​ Supporting lawsuits or litigation. ​ Why are third parties weak ​ Electoral system (winner-take-all), ballot access restrictions, lack of funding. Traits of strong party identification: ​ Family influence, ideological alignment, demographic factors. Party identification and public involvement: ​ Shapes voting behavior, civic engagement, and political loyalty. ​ Party organization: ​ ​ National, state, and local levels with distinct roles. Media ​ What is media framing? ​ The way the media shapes public perception by emphasizing certain aspects of a story. New media vs. traditional media: New media: Digital platforms, social media. ​ Traditional media: Print, TV, radio. Where do most people get political news? ​ Online sources, social media, cable news. ​ Factors biasing the media: ​ Ownership, audience expectations, political leanings of outlets. Government regulation of media: ​ Print media: Minimal regulation due to the First Amendment. ​ TV/Radio: FCC oversees public airwaves. Freedom of Religion ​ Establishment Clause vs. Free Exercise Clause: ​ Establishment Clause: Prohibits government establishment of religion. ​ Free Exercise Clause: Protects individuals’ religious practices. Everson vs. Zorach interpretations: ​ Everson (1947): Strict separation of church and state. ​ Zorach (1952): Allowed some accommodation of religion. The Lemon Test: ​ A law must have a secular purpose, not advance/inhibit religion, and avoid excessive government entanglement (Lemon v. Kurtzman, 1971). Sherbert balancing test: ​ Government must show a compelling interest to restrict religious practices (Sherbert v. Verner, 1963). ​ Disagreement: Employment Division v. Smith (1990) weakened the test, but Congress restored it via the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (1993).