PYC1502 Study Unit 1 PDF

PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Unit 1: Psychology as a science Learning objectives This learning unit will help you to: understand psychology as a science, its goals, and a theory iden...

PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Unit 1: Psychology as a science Learning objectives This learning unit will help you to: understand psychology as a science, its goals, and a theory identify the different approaches to the science of psychology identify the four components of scientific thinking understand the major philosophical issues in psychology understand the types of research conducted in psychology explain the ethics of psychological science and the sub-fields of psychology 1.1 Introduction The mid-19th century was a time of turbulence change in the European scientific community. Many major material sciences were witnessing extra-ordinary upheaval, with new technological discoveries that produced a revolution in industry of magnitude scale. Rising among this upheaval was the new science – a science with an origin that could be traced back to the beginnings of human civilization, and yet that had remained devoid of data or any notable theory, a science with no obvious technological or industrial associations, whose main focus of enquiry was central to the notion of what it is to be human. This new science is called psychology (Schacter et al., 2012). This unit introduces you to psychology as a science. First, it begins by defining the field of psychology as a science, and then moves to discuss the approaches to the science of psychology. It also describes the goals of psychology and explores the major philosophical issues in psychology. The unit also discusses the types of psychological research as well as the ethics embedded in such research. Lastly, the unit explains the various sub-fields of psychology and their main concerns. Open Rubric PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.2 Defining psychology The word psychology comes from the Greek word, psyche, which means soul and logos, which means to study (Schacter et al., 2012). Therefore, psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behaviours and mental processes (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). Behaviours refer to observable actions of human beings and non-human animals, the things that we do in the world by ourselves or with others. Mental processes (or the mind) refers to our private inner experiences, the ever-flowing stream of consciousness that is made up of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings (Schacter et al., 2012). 1.3 What is science? Throughout our history people have been motivated to understand, predict, and control the world around us. To meet these goals, we need methods for gaining knowledge. People often form strong beliefs about the world based on faith, which literally translate to ‘trust.’ Faith is a belief that does not depend on logical proof or evidence. We can accept someone’s excuse for being late based on our faith in his or her honesty, without knowing for certain whether that person is really telling the truth. In contrast to faith, science - a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation - absolutely requires proof and evidence (Schacter et al., 2012). Psychology as a science consists of scientific knowledge made up of factual statements and theories. Factual statements relate to information that has been collected and analysed in a systematic and controlled manner. As a discipline, psychology is based on carefully researched knowledge (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). Science does not refer to just any type of knowledge but rather, to a special way of learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Psychology was not considered as a ‘science’ prior to the 19th century because no systematic attempt had been made to pursue or generate the testable hypotheses that were necessary for a field of psychology to become a science (Schacter et al., 2012). However, not all observations are scientific. How does science differ from everyday observations, like the believe that ‘opposite attracts’? First science relies on objectivity rather than subjectivity. Objectivity means that conclusions about any phenomena are based on facts without the influence from personal emotions or biases. In contrast, subjectivity means that conclusions reflect personal points of view (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). 1.4 The goals of psychology Every science has some goals of learning how things work, how, and why. This section explores the common goals of psychology. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.4.1 Description - (What is it?) According to Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2011), the first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms behave. Therefore, the first step in understanding anything is to describe it. Description involves observing behaviour and noting everything about it; what is happening; where it happens; to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it seems to happen (Ciccareli & White, 2017). For example, a psychologist might notice that young people are increasingly treated for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and often cannot remember how they were infected. This is a problem as a psychologist sees it, but why this is happening? 1.4.2 Explanation - (Why it is happening?) Based on his observation, the psychologist might try to come up with a tentative explanation such as ‘young people engage in risky sexual behaviour because they are consuming alcohol’. In other words, the psychologist is trying to understand or find an explanation for the increased number of young people treated for STIs (Ciccareli & White, 2017). 1.4.3 Prediction - (When will it happen again? Predetermining what will happen in the future is making a prediction. If we consider the findings of many studies, then we can predict that the consumption of alcohol may lead young people to engage in risky sexual behaviours (Ciccareli & White, 2017). This goal involves predicting how organisms will behave in certain situations (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). This would give us an indication that future consumption of alcohol may lead to young people engaging in risky sexual behaviours. 1.4.4 Control - (How can it be changed?) The focus of control, or the modification of behaviour, is to change behaviour from an undesirable one (such as young people engaging in risky sexual behaviours) to a desirable one (such as helping young people not to engage in risky sexual behaviours). For example, the psychologist might try to reduce the level of risky sexual behaviours by drawing the attention of young people to their substance use. Perhaps an intervention demonstrating the negative effects of substance use might impact on young people and help them abstain from using alcohol or engaging in risky sexual behaviours (Ciccareli & White, 2017). Hence, behaviorism asserted that the goal of scientific psychology should be to predict and control behaviour in ways that benefit the society (Schacter et al., 2012). Watch the video on the goals of psychology at: https://youtu.be/fTH-- fLM04M. (Note: Video not for assessment purposes). PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.5 What is a theory? Like many other disciplines, the field of psychology is full of theories that attempt to explain various phenomena in the natural world. Theories offer explanations regarding the origins and functions of particular phenomena, such as human behaviour, and the changes that can be expected under certain conditions, or from one period of life to the next (Newman & Newman, 2016). After examining research evidence, scientists and psychologists may begin to favour certain explanations as to why particular results occurred. Sometimes they organise their explanations into a theory - an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviour (Berk, 2007). Because they are only tentative explanations of particular phenomena, theories must be subjected to scientific examination based on critical thinking. So, although theories may be based on research results, they also generate hypotheses to be tested in further research. The predictions of one theory will be evaluated by many other psychologists. If the research does not support a theory, that theory would be revised or abandoned (Bernstein, 2012). The best scientific theories not only explain and organise known facts, but they also generate predictions. A scientific prediction is much more than a guest or a hunch. It is usually stated in a rigorous, mathematical form that allows the researcher to predict the occurrence of certain phenomenon under certain conditions (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Theories are important for a number of reasons: (i) they allow us to understand and predict the behaviour of some aspect of the world. (ii) theories give meaning to the facts we discover about the world, and serve as a framework within which to interpret facts and integrate new information with previously acquired knowledge (iii) they help explain observations and contribute to the body of knowledge and, (iv) theories that are verified by research provide a sound basis for practical action (Keenan, 2009; Newman & Newman, 2016). In evaluating theories and deciding among conclusions, the scientists and psychologists are often guided not only by the research method used, but also by the principle of parsimony - a principle suggesting that when several alternative conclusions, or several competing theories offer nearly equally convincing explanations of something, the correct explanation tends to be the simplest. This is also known as simplicity or KISS - ‘keep it simple, stupid’ (Bernstein et al., 2012). 1.6 Approaches to the science of psychology The word psychology first appeared in the English press in 1853, although classical Greek philosophers have been preoccupied with psychological issues long before then. However, PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 psychology was not considered as a ‘science’ prior to the 19th century because no systematic attempt had been made to pursue or generate the testable hypotheses that were necessary for a field of psychology to become a science. However, by the 1850s there was an increasing interest by scientists searching for ways of measuring and describing the natural world - and the human mind was opened to investigation (Schacter et al., 2012). 1.6.1 Structuralism The origin of psychology dates as far back as 1879, when Wilhem Wundt, a medical doctor and sensory researcher set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (Kalat, 1996). Wundt believed that scientific psychology should focus on analysing consciousness - a person’s subjective experiences of the world and the mind. Consciousness encompasses a broad range of subjective experiences such as sight, sounds, tastes, smell, body sensations, thoughts and feelings (Schacter et al., 2012). Wundt considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience and he developed a perspective known as structuralism - the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind (Feldman, 2003; Schacter et al., 2012). He proposed that psychology has two kinds of elements - sensation and feelings. This would merge together into a single experience, but that experience will still include the separate elements (Kalat, 1996). Structuralism gained prominence under the leadership of Edward Titchener who revised Wundt’s version of psychology. This approach was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyse consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). These elements constitute the foundation of mental states such as perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions and other kinds of mental activities. To understand how the mind works, Wundt and other structuralists used the procedure called introspection - the subjective observation of one’s own experiences (Schacter et al., 2012). Participants were presented with stimulus - such as a bright green object, or a sentence printed on a card and asked to describe, what they were experiencing in their own words. Wundt argued that by analysing the reports, where people interpreted their experiences, psychologists could better understand the structure of the mind. Over time, other psychologists challenged structuralism and were dissatisfied with introspection as a method that could unlock the fundamental elements of the mind. Therefore, the influence of structuralism gradually faded (Feldman, 2003). The main perspective that replaced structuralism as psychology evolved was functionalism. 1.6.2 Functionalism Although William James agreed with structuralism on some important points however, he disagreed with a belief that consciousness could be broken down into separate elements. Therefore, James decided to approach psychology from a different perspective called functionalism - the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environments (Schacter et al., 2012). Functionalism focused on investigating the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than analysing its structure (Weiten & Hassim 2016). PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Rather than focusing on the components of the mind, functionalism concentrated on what the mind does and how behaviour functions. Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early 1900s, were concerned about the role of behaviours in allowing people to better adapt to the environments. Thus, they examined how behaviour allows people to satisfy their needs. John Dewey, an American educator, used functionalism to develop the field of school psychology, proposing ways to best meet the students’ educational needs (Feldman, 2003). Watch the video on structuralism and functionalism at: https://youtu.be/laBOrIIfoXA. (Note: Video not for assessment purposes). 1.6.3 Behaviorism The behavioral perspective was also influential. John B. Watson believed that private experience was too idiosyncratic and vague to be the object of scientific study. Science required replicable, objective measurements of the phenomena that were accessible to all observers. Watson proposed that psychology should focus entirely on the study of behaviour (what people do rather than what people experience) because behaviour can be observed by anyone and it can be measured objectively. According to Watson, the goal of scientific psychology should be to predict and control behaviour in ways that benefit the society (Schacter et al., 2012). When Watson moved on to the greener pastures, B.F. Skinner became the new leader in the field of behaviorism. Skinner did not only continue research in classical conditioning but, he also developed the theory of how voluntary behaviour is learned, called operant conditioning. In his theory, behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced, whereas the behaviours that are followed by unpleasurable consequences are punished (Ciccareli & White, 2017). 1.6.4 Gestalt psychology Another important reaction in the 1900s to structuralism was the development of Gestalt psychology - a psychological approach that emphasises that people perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts (Schacter et al., 2012). Gestalt theorists such as Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, and Lewin make valuable contribution to psychology. Gestalt psychology is a perspective focusing on how perception is organised. Instead of considering the individual parts that make up thinking, gestalt psychology concentrated on how people consider individual elements together as unit or whole. Their credo was ‘the whole is different from the sum of its part.’ This means that, when considered together, the basic elements that compose our perception of objects produce something greater and more meaningful than those individual elements alone (Feldman, 2003). Today, Gestalt ideas are part of the study of cognitive psychology, a field focusing on issues such as perception, learning, memory, thinking, and so on (Ciccareli & White, 2017). PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.6.5 Humanism Carl Rogers (1902 -1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908 -1970) are among the prominent people that had an influence on humanism. The humanistic approach emphasises that people have great freedom in directing their future, a large capacity for achieving personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth, and enormous potential for self-fulfillment (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). Humanistic perspective sees behaviour as determined primarily by each person's capacity to choose how to think, and act. The approach does not see these choices as driven by instincts, biological processes, or rewards and punishment, but rather by a person’s unique perception of the world (Bernstein et al., 2012). Humanism hold the view that people have free will - the freedom to choose their own destiny, and that they strive for self-actualisation - the achievements of one's full potentials. Today humanism exist as a form of psychotherapy aimed at self-understanding and self-improvement (Ciccareli & White, 2017). Many of humanistic ideas have been incorporated into approaches for counselling and psychotherapy (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). 1.6.6 Psychoanalysis As a physician Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) presumed that all behaviour and mental processes have physical causes somewhere in the nervous system. For nearly 50 years Freud develop his ideas into a body of work known as psychoanalysis, which included the theory of personality and mental disorder, as well as a set of treatment method. Psychoanalysis is an approach that emphasises the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviours (Schacter et al., 2012). After encountering several patients who displayed a variety of physical ailments that had no apparent physical cause, he began to question the assumptions of the late 1800s about human behaviours. After interviewing these patients using hypnosis and other methods, Freud became convinced that the causes of these people's physical problems were not at all physical, but instead were deep-seated problems that the patient had pushed out of consciousness. He eventually believed that all behaviour - from everyday slips of the tongue to severe forms of mental disorder - is motivated by psychological processes, especially by mental conflict that occur without our awareness at an unconscious level. Although Freud’s ideas are by no means universally accepted, still he was a groundbreaker whose theories have had a significant influence on psychology and many other fields (Bernstein et al., 2012). GROUP ACTIVITY PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 In a discussion forum on myUnisa with your e-tutor and peers, reflect on the different approaches to psychology and explain which approach you support and provide reasons for supporting your approach. NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa. 1.7 The components of scientific thinking 1.7.1 Ontological component Ontology refers to the study of the basic nature of the object of research. In psychology, the object of research is the behaviour and the experiences of human beings (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). One of Rene Descartes' most influential philosophical ideas was the ontological distinction between mind and body (Smith, 2018). Many people think of humans in terms of a physical body and a mind. However, there is an issue with the mind-body connection. The mind can be understood as a by-product of the body, thereby making the person a physical being. On the other hand, if the mind exists separately from the body, then the human being is composed of both physical and mental components. These different ontologies influence psychological thinking (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). 1.7.2 Epistemological component Epistemology relates to the knowledge we have about the object of research. Scientific knowledge differs from popular beliefs because it is based on facts. A scientific fact is a statement that all researchers agree about. The problem is to know whether these facts are really true. Psychologists use different methods to try to prove this. The traditional scientific approach is to define truth in terms of correspondence with realty. A factual statement is true if it corresponds with reality. But this raises a new problem. That is, what is reality and how do we know it. The shift now comes to uncovering reality and this is done by conducting scientific study (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). 1.7.3 Methodological component Methodology involves our understanding of the methods that we use to obtain scientific knowledge (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). All research studies follow definite phases regardless of the methods used. Figure 1.1 below explains the process of conducting a scientific research. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Figure 1.1: Steps in a research cycle. Source: research cycle\ - Bing images 1.7.4 Ideological component The ideological component involves attempts to minimise subjectivity and to maximise objectivity. It is always difficult to attain this ideal because science has never been a neutral activity. Researchers’ subjective frame of reference and the social context they find themselves in play a major role when conducting their studies. There are many psycho-social factors that play a role in our production of scientific knowledge. Two of these factors are the socio-economic and socio- political environment. These two factors play a major role in the formulation of and execution of research agendas (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). 1.8 Major philosophical issues in psychology Like other sciences, psychology is mapped out by a number of issues that have raised the interests of great thinkers of all times. This section explores some of these philosophical issues in psychology. 1.8.1 Nature vs nurture controversy Is human development and behaviour a result of biological forces, or environmental factors, or both? Such questions were the subject of philosophical debate centuries before psychologists began studying it scientifically (Bernstein et al., 2012). In fact, the debate can be traced back to the PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Greek philosophical argument between Plato, who favoured the ‘nature’ position of nativism, and his student, Aristotle, who advocated the ‘nurture’ position of philosophical empiricism. Such empiricism later formed the foundations of the behaviourism movement (Berk, 2007). After many decades, the debate over the comparative influence of nature and nurture on development and change still remains active. Galton coined the phrase nature vs nurture in relation to intelligence. On one hand, nature refers to the contributions of heredity to our physical structures and behaviours (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013) that we receive from our parents at the moment of conception (Berk, 2007). On the other hand, nurture refers to the contribution of the environment to our physical structures and behaviours (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). In essays published in 1690s, John Locke argued for the environment (nurture) and regarded development as continuous. Locke argued that the mind was a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which experiences formed lasting impressions to shape the emerging mind (Berk, 2007). In Locke’s philosophy, adults write on the blank slate as they teach children about the world and how to behave (Bernstein et al., 2012). He believed that such experiences provided by the environment during childhood have a profound and permanent effect on development (Bernstein et al., 2012; Berk, 2007). In support, John B. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, also claimed that the environment (not heredity or genes), molds and shapes development. Watson stated that: “There is no such thing as an inheritance of capacity, talent, temperament, mental constitution and characteristics. These things... depend on training that goes on mainly in the cradle” (Watson, 1925; in Bernstein et al., 2012, p.452). However, in the eighteenth-century, a philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau regarded development as a discontinuous, stage-wise process that follows a single, unified course mapped out nature (Berk, 2007). In the early 1900s, Arnold Gesell was the first psychologist to systematically investigate the role of nature in behavior. He found that children’s motor skills (such as standing and walking) developed in a fixed sequence of stages. The order of the stages and the age at which they develop, he suggested, are determined by nature and relatively unaffected by the environment (Bernstein et al., 2012). A psychologist’s position on such issues depends partly on the major perspective he subscribed to. For example, a developmental psychologist using the biological perspective, might be interested in learning more about heredity (nature) influences on growth and changes in behaviour. Conversely, a developmental psychologist using the behavioral perspective would focus on the environment (nurture) as the basis for growth and change (Feldman, 2003). However, for Kalat (1996), all behaviours depend on both heredity and environment because people could not develop at all unless they had both heredity and environment. But the differences between one person and another may depend mostly on differences in heredity or differences in environment (Kalat, 1996). 1.8.2 Conscious vs unconscious causes of behaviour Conscious vs unconscious causes of behaviour refers to how much of our behaviour is produced by forces of which we are fully aware of, and how much is due to unconscious activity? This question represents one of the great controversies in the field of psychology. For example, clinical PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 psychologists adopting a psychodynamic perspective argue that much of abnormal behaviour is motivated by unconscious factors, whereas other psychologists employing the cognitive perspective suggest that abnormal behaviour is largely the result of faulty thinking process. The specific approach taken as a clear impact on how abnormal behaviour is diagnosed and treated (Feldman, 2003). 1.8.3 Observable behaviour vs internal mental processes To distinguish between observable behaviour vs internal mental processes – the question becomes, “should psychology concentrate solely on observable behaviour, or should it focus on unseen thinking processes?” Psychologists who rely on the behavioural perspective believe that the only legitimate source of information is behaviour that can be directly observed. Cognitive psychologists, on the other hand, argue that what goes on inside a person's mind is critical and that we cannot understand behaviour without concerning ourselves with mental processes (Feldman, 2003). 1.8.4 Free will vs determinism How much of our behaviour is a matter of free will (choice is made freely by an individual), and how much is subject to determinism? - the assumption that everything that happens has a cause or determinant, in the observable world (Kalat, 1996). An issue long debated by philosophers the free will/determinism argument is also central to the field of psychology. For example, some psychologist specialising in psychological disorders argue that people make internal choices and that those who displays abnormal behaviour should be held accountable for their own actions. Other psychologists disagree and content that such individuals are the victims of forces beyond their control. The psychologists’ position on this issue have important implications for how they will treat abnormal behaviour (Feldman, 2003). 1.8.5 Individual differences vs universal principles How much of our behaviour is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live? How much of our behaviour is universally human? Psychologists relying on the biological perspective tend to look for universal principles of behaviour such as how our nervous system operate. In contrast, psychologists employing the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual. They consider how every person’s behaviour is a reflection of distinct and special qualities (Feldman, 2003). 1.9 Types of psychological research in psychology A research is a systematic enquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. It is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which theories and hypotheses are accurate (Feldman, 2003). PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.9.1 Archival research In archival research, existing data such as census documents, college records, or newspaper clips are examined to test a hypothesis. For example, college records are often used to determine if there are gender differences in academic performance. Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing hypotheses because someone else has already collected the basic data. However, the use of existing data has some limitations. For example, the data might not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly. Most archival research is hampered by the simple fact that the records with the necessary information do not exist (Feldman, 2003). In these instances, researchers often turn to another research method called naturalistic observation. 1.9.2 Naturalistic observation In naturalistic observation - the process of watching without interfering as a phenomenon occurs in the natural environment (Bernstein et al., 2012), the investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behaviour and does not make a change in the situation. For example, a researcher investigating helping (altruistic) behaviour might observe the kind of help given to victims in a high-crime area. The important point to remember about naturalistic observation is that the researcher is passive and simply records what occurs. Although the advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious - we get a sample of what people do in their natural habitat, the limitation involves the inability to control any of the factors of interest. For example, the researcher might find very few natural occurring instances of helping behaviour that he/she would be unable to draw any conclusions (Feldman, 2003). Furthermore, if people know that they are being observed - and research ethics requires that they should know - then they tend to behave differently than they otherwise would (Bernstein et al., 2012; Feldman, 2003). This knowledge of being watched would produce the behaviour that is not truly representative of their natural behaviour under investigation (Feldman, 2003). Watch the video on naturalistic observation at: https://youtu.be/Gljv31Sumsw. (Note: Video not for assessment purposes). 1.9.3 Survey research This is a straight-forward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do. In survey research, a sample of people chosen to represent some larger group of interest (a population) are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or attitudes (Feldman, 2003). In surveys, researchers use interviews or questionnaires to ask people about their behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or intentions, just as advertisers and politicians rely on opinion polls to test the popularity of the policies or products (Bernstein et al., 2012). Survey methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample, researchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond. For example, a sample of just few thousand voters is sufficient to predict within one or two percentage points who will win the presidential election, if the representative sample is chosen with care. Survey research has some potential drawbacks. For example, people might give inaccurate responses because of memory lapses, or because they don't want the researcher to know what they really believe about a particular issue. Moreover, PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 people sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear, or the responses they assume the researcher does not want to hear. If the sample is not representative of the broader population of interest, the results of the survey have little meaning (Feldman, 2003). Furthermore, even though they can’t be personally identified, people may be reluctant to admit undesirable or embarrassing things about themselves (Bernstein et al., 2012). 1.9.4 Case study This research method involves an intensive examination of some phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation. Case studies are especially useful when studying something that is new, complex, or relatively rare (Bernstein et al., 2012). Case studies often include psychological testing - a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individuals, or the group being studied. When case studies are used as a research technique, the goal is often not only to learn about the few individuals being examined, but to use the insights gained from the study to improve our understanding of people in general. Sigmund Freud built his theories through case studies of individual patients (Feldman, 2003) whose paralysis or other physical symptoms disappeared when they were hypnotized or asleep (Bernstein et al., 2012). Similarly, studies of suicide bombers might help identify those who are prone to violence (Feldman, 2003). 1.9.5 Correlational research In correlational research, the researcher often wishes to determine the relationship between two variables. A variable is a factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in a research (Bernstein, et al., 2012). Therefore, variables can be behaviours, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some ways. The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by mathematical score known as correlation coefficient that can range from positive 1 (+1) to negative 1 (- 1). On one hand, a positive correlation indicates that the values of both variables would increase simultaneously (Feldman, 2003). For example, if we find out that the more a student studies for a test, the higher the marks obtained, then this indicates that there is a positive correlation (or relationship) between the two variables (thus, more study time, and more marks obtained). On the other hand, a negative correlation implies that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. For example, we might predict that as the number of hours spent studying increases, the number of hours spent in partying decreases. Here we are expecting a negative correlation ranging between zero (0) and negative 1 (-1). Thus, more studying is associated with less partying, and less partying is associated with more studying. The stronger the association between studying and partying, the closer the correlation would be to negative 1 (- 1). For instance, a correlation of -.85 would indicate a strong negative association between partying and studying (Feldman, 2003). Watch the video on correlational research at: https://youtu.be/mLBhoVzkFa0. (Note: Video not for assessment purposes). PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 1.9.6 Experimental research The only way to establish the cause-and-effect relationship is to conduct an experiment. In a formal experiment, the relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable and observing its effects on the other variable, while holding all other variables constant (Bernstein et al., 2012; Feldman, 2003). The experimental research usually has two variables; Independent variable - is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher in the experiment, and the dependent variable - the variable that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable on it (Bernstein et al., 2012; Feldman, 2003). The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation of the experiment is called the experimental manipulation. Several steps are involved in carrying out an experiment, but the process typically begins with the development of one or more hypotheses for the experiment to test. Experimental research requires that the responses of at least two groups be compared with each other. One group will receive some special treatment (the manipulation implemented by the experimenter) and another group will receive either no treatment or a different treatment. A group receiving a treatment is called an experimental group, and a group that receives no treatment is called a control group (Bernstein et al., 2012; Feldman, 2003). The results between the two groups are then compared to each other. By employing both experimental and control groups in an experiment, researchers are able to rule out the possibility that something other than the experimental manipulation produced the results observed in the experiment (Feldman, 2003). 1.10 The ethics in psychological research All psychological research introduces some ethical issues, which should be identified and resolved prior to the commencement of a research study. The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), and its Professional Board for Psychology, require the psychologists to conduct psychological practice and research in accordance with the legislative parameters that include the protection of the rights and dignity of the research participants (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). The American Psychological Association (APA, 2002b) also published the ‘Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct’ to guide the ethical behaviour and practices of psychologists. This document not only emphasises the importance of ethical behaviour, but it also describes specific ways in which the psychologists can protect and promote the welfare of the people they work with, and the society in general (Bernstein et al., 2012). Below, we will discuss some of the most important ethical considerations. 1.10.1 Voluntary participation A fundamental ethical principle of voluntary participation requires that the participants must not be coerced into taking part in a research study (Thumbadoo, 2013). Thus, participation in a research project must be voluntary and no one must be forced to participate. Participants should PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 also be made aware that they have the liberty to withdraw from participation at any point during the study (De Vos et al., 2005). 1.10.2 Informed consent One of the key ethical principles followed by psychologists is informed consent. Before participating in an experiment, the participants must sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve, what risks the experiment may hold, and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary and maybe terminated at any time (Feldman, 2003). Informed consent involves giving the participants accurate information about the study so that they can make an informed and voluntary decision whether or not to take part in the study (Masetshaba, 2016). An informed consent form contains, among other things, a brief description of the procedures and the purposes of the research, the topics to be covered (Ritchie et al., 2013), a guarantee of confidentiality, and information about the rights of the participants (Balfour, 2007). 1.10.3 Anonymity and confidentiality One of the main ethical concerns in the social research process is the protection of the identity of the participants. Anonymity is different to confidentiality, although both terms are often used interchangeably. Anonymity means that the identities of the research participants are unknown outside the research project (Ritchie et al., 2013), whereas confidentiality means that the identifying information about the participants will not be made available to a third party not directly involved in the study (Roth & von Unger, 2018). In other words, there should be no reference to any real names and other personal details of the participants (Kielmann et al., 2012). Therefore, in qualitative research, pseudonyms are often used to protect the participants' identities and to safeguard the ethics of anonymity and confidentiality (Saunders et al., 2015). 1.10.4 Non-maleficence The ethical standards of social research also require that the participants not be subjected to any risk of harm due to their participation in the study (Bhembe, 2014). According to Balfour (2007), the best way to protect the research participants from harm is to inform them of all the possible consequences of the research. This is related to informed consent. 1.10.5 Deception Deception refers to any action designed to mislead others by distorting, falsifying, or misinforming individuals so that they are manipulated to react in a certain manner (Cheng-Tek Tai, 2012). Most psychologists argue that the use of deception is sometimes necessary to prevent the participants from being influenced by what they think is the true purpose of the study. To avoid such outcomes, researchers must occasionally use deception (Feldman, 2003), however, with caution. Therefore, deception involves withholding information from the participants about the true intention of the PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 study. For instance, the researcher may tell the participants that the research investigates students’ learning strategies while the actual hypothesis concerns their obedience to authority. Therefore, by providing information about the true intention of the study, the results may be invalid. The participants may modify their behaviours in the light of this knowledge (Cheng-Tek Tai, 2012; Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Therefore, deception occurs when participants are not fully informed of the hypothesis of the study or how the data will be used (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). 1.10.6 Debriefing When deception is used in a research, the ethical standards require the researcher to ‘debrief’ participants as soon as the study is over by revealing all relevant information about the research and correcting any misconceptions it may have created. During the debriefing process, the researcher reveals any deception, the hypothesis of the study, and the possible implications of the results as to why the study was conducted (Bernstein et al., 2012; Cheng-Tek Tai, 2012). The investigator can gather the participants together to do a group debriefing or choose to gradually reveal the deceptive nature of the study to each individual. The explanation of why the experiment had to proceed this way should be given and the results of the experiment should be shared with them (Cheng-Tek Tai, 2012). Studies that adopt research design such as naturalistic observation, archival research or field experiments, do not necessitate debriefing (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). 1.11 The sub-fields of psychology The professionalisation of psychology has continued at a steady and spread into new areas of psychology. Today psychology comprises a number of specialisations (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Based on scientific principles established in the study of human mind, professional psychologists are concerned with solving a variety of problems, such as health issues related to depression and anxiety (Schacter et al., 2012). More specifically, the main fields of professional psychology are outlined below. Clinical psychology - this field of psychology deals with the study, diagnoses, and treatment of psychological disorders. The clinical psychology perspective seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviours (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). It aims to reduce the psychological distress from difficulties arising in mental health relationships, learning, and any events that can affect the psychological well-being across the population. Clinical psychologists are trained to diagnose and treat problems ranging from everyday crisis of life, such as unhappiness over the breaking up of a relationship, to more extreme conditions such as depression (Feldman, 2003). Clinical psychologists typically conduct assessment and evaluation that leads to therapy, counseling, or advice they work in health and social care settings (Schacter et al., 2012). Counselling psychology - it focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems (Feldman, 2003). It is similar to clinical psychology in terms of addressing mental health issues but is more concerned with therapeutic practice and requires high levels of interpersonal skills in relating to others in a therapeutic context. Counselling psychologists PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 work in a variety of settings, including health and social care, industry, commerce, the prison service and all levels of education (Schacter et al., 2012). Educational and school psychology - Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as a relationship between intelligence and school performance, and the development of better teaching techniques (Feldman, 2003). It is also concerned with applying psychological techniques and approaches to help children and young people with difficulties in learning and social adjustment. Educational and school psychologists carry out a wide range of test aimed at assessing and enhancing learning as well as making teachers aware of the factors affecting teaching and learning (Schacter et al., 2012). Educational and school psychologists conduct research and develop theories about teaching and learning. The results of their work are applied in program designed to improve teacher training, refine school curricula, reduce school dropout rates, and help students learn more efficiently and remember what they learn (Bernstein, 2012). Developmental psychology - this field explores the normal changes in human behaviour that occur across the lifespan. Developmental psychologists describe the changes in behaviour and mental processes that occur from birth through old age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes (Bernstein et al., 2012). Using the developmental perspective, the psychologists might look at how memory functions in people of different ages (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Their research on the development of memory and other mental abilities, for example, is used by judges and attorneys in deciding how old a child has to be in order to serve as a reliable witness in the court, or to responsibly choose which divorcing parents to live with (Bernstein et al., 2012). Forensic psychology - it addresses the psychological aspects of the legal process including criminal investigations, criminal behaviour, and the treatment of criminals. Forensic psychologists may also be consulted to provide a psychological perspective on an investigation and advice on techniques for hostage negotiation (Schacter et al., 2012). In some countries, forensic psychologists assist in jury selection, evaluate defendant's mental competency to stand trial, and deal with other issues involving psychology and the law (Bernstein et al., 2012). It focuses on legal issues, such as deciding on criteria for determining whether a defendant was legally sane at the time the crime was committed (Feldman, 2003). Typical work for a forensic psychologist includes implementing treatment and behaviour modification programmes for criminals, addressing psychological issues of both staff and inmates in prisons, advising parole and mental health boards, and giving evidence in court (Schacter et al., 2012). Health psychology - this is a relatively new field of psychology that applies psychological research and methods to promote good health and prevent illness by exploring the relationship between the psychological factors and physical ailments or disease (Schacter et al., 2012; Feldman, 2003). It tackles potentially harmful behaviours such as alcohol and drug PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 abuse, as well as issues related to diet and routine health checks. Health psychologists work in a variety of settings such as hospitals, health authorities, and various organisations that take an interest in the well-being of their employees (Schacter et al., 2012). Neuropsychology - deals with the psychological consequences of brain damage arising from disease, disorder, or trauma. The work of a neuropsychologists typically involves assessment, evaluation, and implementation of rehabilitation programmes. Neuropsychologists may also be required to give expert witness evidence in court. They mostly work in hospital settings, in acute unit dealing with brain injury and rehabilitation centres, and in the community (Schacter et al., 2012). Sports psychology - it applies psychological techniques to sports at the individual and team level to improve performance in training and competition (Schacter et al., 2012). Sports psychologists use visualisations and relaxation training programs to help athletes reduce excessive anxiety, focus attention, and make other changes that let them perform at their best (Bernstein et al., 2012). Most sports psychologists work as consultants, but full-time posts are becoming more prevalent (Schacter et al., 2012). Cognitive psychology - this branch of psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes (Feldman, 2003). Cognitive psychology involves how we process, store, and receive information and how mental processes influence our behaviours. The cognitive psychologists study the rapid series of mental events - including those outside of awareness - that accompany observable behaviour (Bernstein et al., 2012). Research on cognitive functioning includes, among others, memory, thinking, creativity, and decision-making (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). Industrial and organisational psychology - Industrial or organisational psychology examines the relationship of people and their work environment (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). In countries such as, Europe and the United Kingdom this area of specialisation is also known as, Occupational psychology - this branch of psychology aims to improve job satisfaction and productivity of the workforce by applying psychological principles and techniques. This includes advising on increasing motivation, devising incentives, recruitment, career progression and even coping with redundancy (Schacter et al., 2012). These psychologists may be involved in personnel selection, help improve employee relationships, or increase employee job satisfaction and productivity. They conduct research on leadership, stress, competition, pay scales and other factors that affect the efficiency, productivity, and satisfaction of people in the workplace. They also explore topics such as employee selection methods (also known as employee recruitment), worker motivation, career progression planning, work team corporation, conflict resolution procedures, and devising incentives. Learning more about how the businesses and industrial organisations work or failed to work, allows industrial psychologists to make evidence-based recommendations for helping them work better. Today companies all over the world are PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 applying research from industrial and organisational psychology to promote the development of positive organisational behaviour. Industrial psychologists study ways to increase efficiency and productivity in the workplace (Bernstein et al., 2012). They usually work in businesses, industry, and academic settings (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). Social psychology - it studies psychological processes that operate when people interact with others and how they behave in groups (Kalat, 1996; Schacter et al., 2012). It describes the effects of the social environment, including culture, on the behaviour of individuals. Social psychology recognises that we each construct our own realities and that the social environment influences our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). The research on social issues, such as persuasion, has been applied to the creation of safe sex-advertising campaigns designed to stop the spread of HIV and AIDS. Social psychologists also explore, among others, how peer pressure affects people, what determines whom we like or even love, and why and how prejudice forms (Bernstein et al., 2012). It also involves the study of stereotypes, prejudices, attitudes, conformity, group behaviours, aggression and attraction. Many social psychologists work in academic settings, but some work in hospitals and federal agencies as consultants and in business settings as personal managers (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). The sub-fields of psychology are usually regulated by professional bodies based on the laws of the country. In addition, the specific sub-fields of psychology may available and regulated in other countries whereas they may not in other countries. The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) governs the registration of psychologists in South Africa. For more on the sub-fields of psychology regulated in South Africa you can visit the HPCSA website’s professional board of psychology or click on the following link to access the document which contains the proposed regulations defining the scope of practice for practicing psychologists in South Africa: (Note: HPCSA document not for assessment purposes) https://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/PSB_2019/Rules%20and%20Regulations/proposed_regulatio ns_gnr263_gg33080_20100406.pdf In a discussion forum on myUnisa with your e-tutor and peers, reflect on the following question: After conducting his research, Mpho used fictitious names/pseudonyms in his report to refer to participants who took part in his study. Which ethical consideration did Mpho use when choosing to report on fictitious names? Please provide an answer and elaborate on what this ethical consideration entails. NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa. Summary PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 This unit highlighted the science of psychology and its major approaches and philosophical debates that sparked the interests in various topics. As its knowledge base grows, psychology will become increasingly specialised and new perspectives will emerge. Psychology’s influence on issues of public interests grows as people find the ways to solve them. As a science that focuses on various aspects of our existence, psychology played a vital role in the understanding of the evolution of human species and other organisms in the natural world. The various sub- fields of psychology have evolved and are increasingly contributing to the field of psychology in many respects. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Glossary Anonymity: an ethical principle requiring that the identities of the participants should be unknown outside the research project. Archival research: is a research method that uses existing data such as census documents, records, or newspaper clips to test a hypothesis. Behaviorism: the approach stating that psychology should focus entirely on the study of observable behaviour rather than mental processes. Case study: is a research method that involves an intensive examination of some phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation. Clinical psychology: is the field of psychology that deals with the study, diagnoses, and treatment of psychological disorders. Cognitive psychology: it focuses on the study of higher mental processes involving how we process, store, and receive information and how mental processes influence our behaviours. Confidentiality: an ethical principle requiring that identifying information about the participants should not be made available to a third party not directly involved in the study. Consciousness: refers to a person’s subjective experiences of the world and the mind. Control group: is a group that either receives poor (or false) treatment, or no treatment in the experiment. Control: the goal of control, or the modification of behaviour, is to change behaviour from an undesirable behaviour to a desirable behaviour. Correlation coefficient: is the process of determining the strength and direction of the relationship between the variables in a research. Correlational research: a research method used to determine the relationship between two or more variables. Counselling psychology: is a sub-filed of psychology that focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Debriefing: the process of revealing any form of deception used in the study to correct any misconception it may have created, and the possible implications of the results as to why the study was conducted. Deception: refers to the purposeful act of misleading others by distorting, falsifying, or misinforming them so that they are manipulated to react in a certain manner. Dependent variable: is the variable that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable on it. Description: the goal of description involves observing behaviour and noting everything about it; what is happening; where it happens; to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it happens. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Determinism: is the assumption that everything that happens has a cause or determinant, in the observable world. Developmental psychology: a branch of psychology that explores normal changes in human behaviour that occur across the lifespan. Educational and school psychology: a branch of psychology that is concerned with teaching and learning processes and applies psychological techniques and approaches to help children and young people with learning difficulties. Epistemology component: refers to the knowledge we have about the object of research. Experimental group: is a group that receives a form of treatment in the experiment. Experimental manipulation: refers to the changes that the researcher deliberately produces in a situation of the experiment. Experimental research: a research method in which the relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable and observing its effects on the other variable, while holding all other variables constant. Explanation: The goal of explanation involves finding a cause of a particular behaviour Forensic psychology: a sub-field of psychology that addresses the psychological aspects of the legal process including criminal investigations, criminal behaviour, and the treatment of criminals. Free will: refers to the freedom to choose for oneself. Functionalism - the study of the purpose mental processes serves in enabling people to adapt to their environments. Gestalt psychology: is a sub-field of psychology that emphasises that people perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts. Health psychology: it applies psychological research and methods to promote good health and prevent illness by exploring the relationship between the psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. Humanism: The psychological approach emphasizes that people have great freedom in directing their future, a capacity for achieving personal growth, and a potential for self-fulfillment. Ideological component: it involves attempts to minimise subjectivity and to maximise objectivity, and the socioeconomic and political factors that may affect the study. Independent variable: is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher in the experiment. Industrial and organisational psychology: a branch of psychology that examines the relationship of people and their work environment by focusing on issues such as personnel selection, employee relationships, and increase employee job satisfaction. Informed consent: is a document affirming that the research participants have been informed about all the aspects of the study, such as the risks involved, their rights ,and voluntary participation. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Introspection: refers to the subjective observation of one’s own experiences Methodology component: it involves our understanding of the methods that we use to obtain scientific knowledge. Naturalistic observation: is the process of watching without interfering as a phenomenon occurs in the natural environment. Negative correlation: implies that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. Neuropsychology: it deals with the psychological consequences of brain damage arising from disease, disorder, or trauma. Non-maleficence: a research ethical standard requiring the participants not be subjected to any risk of harm due to their participation in the study. Objectivity: means that conclusions about any phenomena are based on facts without the influence from personal emotions or biases. Occupational psychology: is a branch of psychology that aims to improve job satisfaction and productivity of the workforce by applying psychological principles and techniques. Ontology component: it refers to the study of the basic nature of the object of research. Operant conditioning: is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments to strengthen or weaken a particular behaviour. Parsimony: is a principle suggesting that when several alternative conclusions, or several competing theories offer nearly equally convincing explanations of something, the correct explanation tends to be the simplest. Positive correlation: indicates that the values of both variables increase simultaneously. Prediction: this is one of the goals of psychology that involves foretelling how organisms will behave in certain situations. Psychoanalysis: an approach that emphasises the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. Psychological testing: is a procedure in which a carefully-designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individuals or the group being studied. Psychology: is the systematic, scientific study of behaviours and mental processes Research: is a systematic enquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. Science: is a method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation Self-actualization: relates to the achievements of one's full potentials. Social psychology: it studies psychological processes that operate when people interact with others and how they behave in groups. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 Sports psychology: it applies psychological techniques to sports at the individual and team level to improve performance in training and competition. Structuralism: a psychological approach that involves the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind. Subjectivity: means that conclusions reflect personal points of view Survey research: is a straight-forward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do. Theory: is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts phenomenon. Variable: is a factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in a research project. Voluntary participation: an ethic in a research that requires the participants to take part voluntarily, without any form of coercion. PYC1502/Unit 1: Psychology as a science/OER 2022 References Bernstein, D.A., Clarke-Steward, A., Penner, L.A. & Roy, E.J. (2012). Psychology (9th ed.). Wadsworth. Cacioppo, J.T. & Freberg, L.A. (2013). Discovering psychology: The science of mind. Wadsworth. Cheng-Tek Tai, M. (2012). Deception and informed consent in social, behavioral, and educational research (SBER). Tzu Chi Medical Journal 24 (2012) 218e222. journal homepage: www.tzuchimedjnl.com De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouchẻ, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L. (2005). Research at grass roots: For the social sciences and human services professions (3rd ed.). Van Schaik. Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2011). Introduction to psychology (9th ed.). Wadsworth. Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.T. & Wegner, D.M. (2012). Psychology. Palgrave MacMillan. Skosana, G.M. (2017). Learning. In S.K. Ciccarelli, & J.N. White (eds.). Psychology- An exploration: Global and Southern African Perspectives. Pearson. Smith, Kurt (2018). Descartes’ Theory of Ideas. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University Van Deventer, V, & Mojapelo-Batka M. (2013). A Student’s A-Z of psychology. Juta. Weiten, W. & Hassim, J. (2016). Variations in psychology (2nd South African edition). Cengage learning.