PURCOM 1ST TERM REVIEWER.pdf

Lesson 1: The Process of COMMUNICATION PART 1: DEFINING THE COMMUNICATION "sending" or "receiving" ✓ Connotes something one person does or give to someone else "sharing" ✓ connotes something that two or more people do together. Black and Bryant (1922) define communication as: ✓ the process by which...

Lesson 1: The Process of COMMUNICATION PART 1: DEFINING THE COMMUNICATION "sending" or "receiving" ✓ Connotes something one person does or give to someone else "sharing" ✓ connotes something that two or more people do together. Black and Bryant (1922) define communication as: ✓ the process by which individuals share meaning. ✓ the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of other individuals (communicatee). ✓ occurring whenever the information is passed from one place to another. Not simply the verbal, explicit, and intentional transmission of message; it includes all those processes by which people influence one another. Communication is... ✓ transmission of information, ideas, attitudes or emotion from one person or group to another (or others) primarily through symbols (Theodorson and Theodorson, 1969). ✓ may be defined as "social interaction through messages" (Gerbner, 1967) ✓ a process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of some channel to produce a response from the receiver, in accordance with the intention of the source (SRA, Sourcebook, 1996) According to Kincaid and Schramm: Not all communication has to be human communication. Not all communication takes place in words. Communication can take place over large distances of space and time. Communication not always require two or more participants. Not all participants in a communication process have to be present at the same time. Thinking is a form of communication Communication as a process and its four attributes: A. SYSTEMATIC Consist of group of elements which interact to influence each other and the system as a whole. B. DYNAMIC On-going; ever-changing, with no clear beginnings and endings. C. MEANING IS PERSONALLY CONSTRUCTED Meanings are in people, not in words. D. SYMBOLIC INTERACTION Language is a form of symbol. "The medium shapes the message." PART 2: ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS Berlo’s Model of Communication (1961) SOURCE → MESSAGE → CHANNEL → RECEIVER → EFFECT → FEEDBACK → Source refers to a person or a group of persons "with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication" (Berlo, 1961). The source initiates the communication process. Also referred to as the encoder, sender, information, source or communicator. Receiver refers to the person or group of persons at the other end of the communication process. He or she is the target of the communication (Berlo, 1961). The receiver listens when the source talks; the receiver reads what the source writes. Message A source must have something to transmit. His or her purpose is expressed in the form of a message. The message may be an idea, purpose or intention that has been translated into a code or a systematic set of symbols (Berlo, 1961). A message has three factors: 1. Message code - any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that is meaningful to some person. Thus, language (sounds, letter and words) is a code because its contains elements that are arranged in meaningful orders. 2. Message content - is the material in the message selected by the source to express his/her purpose. Ex: research report (included writers assertion's, information presented, conclusions drawn. 3. Message treatment - decisions that the communication source makes in selecting and arranging both code and content. Ex: A journalist writes an article (what information to include, the angle of the story, the words he will use.) Channel modes of encoding and decoding the messages (e.g. speaking) message vehicles (sound waves) vehicle carriers (air) determined by: availability, money, source preferences, which channels are received by most people at the lower cost, which channels have the most impact; which channels are adaptable to the purpose of the source; which channels are most adaptable to the content of the message. Effect The outcome of a communication or the response of the receiver to the message of the source. Sometimes it adheres to the desired outcome of the source, sometimes the effect is not the desired outcome. 1. Overt Effect - obvious or visible; responses include non- verbal cues (nodding of head, signing of a contract). 2. Covert Effect - non-observable but sometimes they are the most important. * Communication can result in motivation or persuasion. It may lead to awareness, interest, decision, or action. Feedback When an individual communicates with himself, the messages he encodes are fed back into his system by his decoder (Berlo, 1960). A communication response is feedback to both source and receiver. Feedback could take form of non-verbal or verbal cues. PART 3: LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION 1. Intrapersonal Communication ✓ communication with oneself. 2. Interpersonal Communication ✓ often defined as face-to-face communication ✓ person-to-person communication - communication between one person, a group, or a room full of people at one time but still on a person-to person basis. 3. Mass Communication ✓ A communication that employs technological devices (radio, television, films) to disseminate symbolic content to large, heterogeneous, and widely dispersed audiences (Janowitz, 1968 and McQuail, 1981). ✓ Communicating with large group of people at one time through the use of social media. PEOPLE CANNOT NOT COMMUNICATE MODELS OF COMMUNICATION 1. Laswell's Model Harold D. Laswell, an American political scientist. S – Who? M – Says What? C – In which channel? R – To whom? E – With what effect? Limitations: omits the elements of feedback; the model took for granted that the communication is mainly a persuasive process. 2. Shannon and Weavers "Mathematical" Model Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were engineers working for Bell Telephone Company. the model answered the questions Information →(Message) Transmitter →(Signal) →Noise Source & →(Received Signal) Receiver →(Message) Destination one-way liniar model introduced the element of noise - in technical aspect, noise is anything that disrupts the transmission of a signal; in human communication context, noise is anything that disrupts the smooth flow of communication. 3. Newcomb's Model A→B, B→A, A→X, B→X Introduces the role of communication in a society or social relationship. Communication maintains equilibrium within a social system If A and B have similar attitudes about X, then the system is in equilibrium. Should their attitudes differ, then there is no equilibrium and A and B must communicate to find a way to put their system in balance. 4. Osgood and Schramm's Model Message -Encoder -Interpreter -Decoder Wilbur Schramm and Charles Osgood Compares their model to Shannon and Weaver's (focus on channel) Schramm and Osgood model focuses on the actors in the communication to be equal in performing the tasks of encoding, interpreting, and decoding messages. 5. Osgood and Schramm's Model Cyclical representation "...it is misleading to think of communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless (Schramm, 1954) 6. Westley and MacLean's Model David Berlo SMCRE Model ↓↓ → A→C→B 6. Berlo's Model David Berlo SMCRE Model In his book Process of Communication (1961), he also discusses the element of feedback. SOURCE → MESSAGE → CHANNEL → RECEIVER → EFFECT → FEEDBACK → 7. Dance's Helical Model Portrays the communication process as moving. Shows the dynamism of the communication process May be used to illustrate information gaps and the thesis that knowledge tends to create more knowledge. 8. Kincaid's Convergence Model D. Lawrence Kincaid Shows a process of convergence to which participants share information so that mutual understanding is reached. Once mutual understanding is reached, there is mutual agreement, then collective action can be taken. PART 4: ENVIRONMENT OF COMMUNICATION Even the most experienced communicators among us have been misunderstood at one time or another. Distortions in message Misinformation Lack of information A second look at effective communication... Berlo explained: Effect is the difference between what a receiver thinks, feels, and does before and after exposure to a message. Thus, effect is best expressed in behavioral terms. The communicator has one or more purposes: to gain attention, understanding, or acceptance, or to elicit action. Jamias used the following formula to explain the factors that contribute to effective communication: E = Sc + Mc + Cc + Rc + Re Where: E is effect Sc is characteristic of source Mc is characteristic of message Cc is characteristic of channel Rc is characteristic of receiver Re is resources available to the receiver Noise 1. In the middle of an important meeting, the phone rings insistently. 2. While rushing to revise a paper whose deadline was yesterday, the electricity goes off and you lose half of what you have already typed in the computer. 3. You're explaining a procedure to a group of new freshmen who look like nothings you've said so far has made sense to them. ✓ any interference with the message travelling along the channel...which may lead to the signal received being different from that sent (Chandler,n.d.) → Static over telephone lines → Blaring of the radio → Car horns outside your window → Negative impressions → Cultural differences → Undiagnosed learning deficiencies CLASSIFYING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS TECHNICAL PROBLEMS How accurately the message can be transmitted. (e.g. radio static; bad cellular signal.  SEMANTIC PROBLEMS How precisely the meaning is conveyed. (e.g. translating a publication from one language to another. EFFECTIVENESS PROBLEMS How effectively does the received message affect behavior. (e.g. editor makes comments for the purpose of making a piece of writing more concise or precise. A group of scientists classify barriers of communication into three: physical barriers, psychological-cultural barriers, and social barriers 1. Channel Noise e.g. static, wrong spelling, letters too small to read, dead air on the radio. these affect the channel, medium, or instrument used in transmitting a message. in turn, they affect the fidelity of the message. Fidelity means that the message received is faithful to the one sent. 2. Environmental Factors e.g. uncomfortable sitting arrangements, rooms that are too hot, wall paper is too bright, meeting right after lunch. barriers that are present in the environment in which a communication takes place. they are external to the communication process but may create conditions under which communication effectiveness is hampered. 3. Semantic Noise it happens when the message received as sent but the meaning received was different from the meaning sent. Occurs when we use, hear, or read words with double meanings. E.g. gay meant happy or joyful Language serves as a bridge between peoples and culture, however, it can also serve as a barrier. 4. Socio-Psychological Barriers e.g. emotional blocks, charisma, stereotyping, first impressions, and absent-mindedness Stereotyping - means judging people before you know all the facts about them; believing that they have common characteristics common among members of each group. 4. Other Barriers Ethnocentrism - in viewing a group or culture as superior to all others. E.g. we interpret messages from the context of our experiences. Most of the time it help us respond appropriately to stimuli, however at times, negative experiences makes us dysfunctional (disbelief, rejection, distortion, or misinterpretation). PART 5: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Communication Competence Rothwell(1992) noted that knowing what constitutes human communication does not automatically make you an effective communicator. He points out that one must first understand what it means to communicate competently. Qualities of a Competent Communicator 1. They have a We-not-Me Orientation People who work well in a group are often more competent in achieving communication goals than those who do not. 2. They understand communication effectiveness "someone who knows what changes in communication behavior need to be made, want to make these changes, but never does, can hardly be deemed a competent communicator" (Rothwell, 1992) 3. They have a sense of appropriateness a competent communicator must have a sense of context.  "avoid violating social or interpersonal norms, rules or expectations" (Spitzberg and Cupach, 1989 in Rothwell, 1992) Four basic components of communication competence, Littlejohn and Jabusch (1982): 1. Understanding 2. Communication skills 3. Interpersonal sensitivity 4. Ethical responsibility Shockley-Zalabak (1988) modified these into four easily remembered elements: A. KNOWLEDGE Knowing what to do, when to do, and how to do it. Know when to keep quiet and know when to stop. Knowledge of how to communicate with different kinds of people. B. SKILLS Ability to demonstrate your knowledge in actual situations (Rothwell, 1992). Communication skills, both verbal and non- verbal, are intrinsic to the success of any individual. C. SENSITIVITY Competent communicators must be sensitive to the consequences of the communication choices they make. Situation requirements: relationships they have with others in a group; goals of the communicator in light of the group's goals. D. VALUES The desire to avoid previous mistakes and find better ways of communicating with group members (Rothwell). Commitment to better communication. FAILURE TO LISTEN LISTENING ACTIVITY The Problem: We HEAR but we do not LISTEN STAND if it hits you. 1. Assumes that the message communicated will be uninteresting and unimportant. Thus, you steer your minds in another direction even before the source begins. 2. You begin by mentally criticizing the source's delivery. You are too busy adding up his/her physical faults and wondering why he/she rates your attention. 3. You are too busy thinking up an argument or rebuttal to listen with understanding. 4. People listen only for factual data and want to be spared of the "details." 5. People try to outline everything they hear in a conference or at a convention. But in their busy efforts to outline what's said, they hear only 1/3 of it. 6. People frequently pretend to give the source their undivided attention. They then proceed to tune him/her in or out at will while retaining an attentive facial expression. 7. People permit others to speak inaudibly or to give fragmentary information instead of asking for clarification or repetition. 8. People tune out any message that borders on the technical. 9. People are allergic in certain words, ideas or phrases they find distasteful. They tend to change topic or avoid discussion. 10. Their minds wander.