PubPol 2250 Notes PDF

Prelim 1 Big Ideas From Last Unit 1. Sociological Imagination: Understanding individual experiences within broader social contexts. 2. Social Structure: The organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that compose society. 3. Social Construction: The pro...

Prelim 1 Big Ideas From Last Unit 1. Sociological Imagination: Understanding individual experiences within broader social contexts. 2. Social Structure: The organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that compose society. 3. Social Construction: The process by which societal norms and concepts are created and maintained. 4. Ideology: A system of ideas and beliefs that shape how individuals understand the world. 5. Culture: The shared values, norms, and practices of a group or society. 6. Institutions: Established and enduring practices and structures that organize social life. 7. Reification: The process of treating abstract concepts as if they are concrete realities. 8. Socialization: The process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms and values of their society. 9. Norms: The expectations and rules that guide behavior within a society. This Unit 1. Housing Insecurity: The lack of stable, affordable housing options affecting individuals and families. 2. Sociological Methods: The various approaches used to conduct research and gather data in sociology. 3. Social Complexity: The intricate and interconnected nature of social relationships and institutions. 4. Unintended Policy Consequences: Outcomes that occur as a result of policy decisions that were not anticipated. 5. Ostensive Policy vs. Policy in Practice: The distinction between the policies that are formally stated and how they are actually implemented. 6. Incremental vs. Structural Policy Change: The difference between gradual adjustments to policy versus comprehensive, systemic changes. 7. Theory of Action: The underlying principles and assumptions that guide individuals' or organizations' actions Microaggressions are the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights, snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to target persons based solely upon their marginalized group membership. Microaggressions - effect on students: Enforce social boundaries Invoke uncritical assumptions, stereotypes, and vestiges of past eras Exhausting to experience Microaggressions - effect on discussion: May not know when we commit a microaggression Stay quiet for fear of offending Dilemma: whether to call someone out Simplistic notions of “good or bad” can shut down a learning opportunity. How was social life organized in the Country of the Blind? Night and day Pathways Clothing Lights and windows Sounds Elders Secluded No conception of “sight” Mythology Status hierarchy In Country of the Blind, the valley's inhabitants navigate their town with paths that have constant angles and specialized notches, allowing for easy movement. They have cleared all potential hazards from their alleys, ensuring safety and ease of access. Though they are considered "normal," these individuals possess unique abilities, such as acute senses of smell and hearing, which enhance their adaptability. Their reliance on llamas reflects a typical human lifestyle aid, demonstrating a sustainable way of living throughout history.When Nunez arrives, the concept of sight is foreign and deemed impossible by the residents. This scenario suggests that a specific form of adaptation and, more importantly, intergenerational teaching can lead to entrenched ignorance, where "truth" becomes perceived as immutable. Initially, the society of the blind may appear equal, but Nunez's arrival reveals the deep-seated inequalities; he is treated as an outsider and not afforded the same status.The story highlights social issues like marginalization, showcasing how the ignorant can wield the power of the majority. This dynamic serves as a critique of society's tendency to dismiss individual differences. Nunez's recognition of the stitching patterns in the townspeople's clothing subtly hints at his privilege. In a society focused on survival and effectiveness, clothing's fashion or uniformity is irrelevant when one cannot see. However, the introduction of sight complicates matters, as it introduces notions of desirability and professionalism—factors that play a significant role in climbing socioeconomic ladders in contemporary society. The contrast between Nunez's perspective and that of the blind community underscores the importance of understanding and accepting individual positionality in social contexts. Culture as disability Why is Nunez considered disabled? Fluttering eyes Delusions Stumbling Nonsense “A disability may be a better display board for the weaknesses of a cultural system than it is an account of real persons.” Organization of social life What is “society”? Collective, but more than sum of individual parts Interdependent, but not necessarily harmonious Unwritten or explicit rules, organizing how we: Interact and communicate Spend time Evaluate information Judge right from wrong Understand difference Organization of social life “Self and society”: complex interplay between individuals who are embedded in their social context. We are actors with individual agency, and... We are constrained by society What is a social problem? Objectivist definition: social problem = harmful condition Common examples: racism, sexism, drug abuse, crime Is student debt a social problem? Subjectivist definition: conditions are social problems if people in a society think they are problems. What matters is people’s response to and perceptions of troubling conditions. Problems change as people’s opinions shift Different societies have different lists of social problems because their distinct experiences and cultures will shape what they see as problematic Social problems are, by definition, socially constructed What is a social construction? How people assign meaning to world Shared assumptions of reality Language plays a key role Examples: Race, gender, nationality, sexuality, money, time,poverty, terrorism, truth, beauty, honor, status, merit  ○ In Country of the Blind, Nunez is a stranger whose presence creates disharmony. ○ They view him as having a disability – his difference is a social problem. ○ Vision is a “disability” in their society, but not in ours. All in our heads Social constructions are not fictional nor imagined. But their origin is not natural. Carry consequences – human suffering, limit potential The hope: if constructed, could be changed! ○ First step: Understand the nature of the problem When are problems social rather than individual? Inequality Traffic Mass incarceration Segregation Global warming Even though some are rooted in individual behavior, all of these are social problems because they are embedded in social context. Obesity - a social problem; obesity is not: a personal failing. Three types of claims about social problems Descriptive claims: ○ What is the scale and scope of the problem? ○ Is it common or rare? ○ Do all people experience it similarly? Causal claims: ○ What factors contribute to the problem? ○ What are the historical roots of the problem? ○ How does the problem affect others? Normative claims: ○ What should be done about the problem? ○ Why is this problem important? ○ Appeal to values Example: childhood poverty Descriptive claims: ○ Roughly one in four children are currently in poverty. ○ Many will move in and out of poverty over their childhood. ○ Poverty rates have fluctuated over time ○ There is racial inequality in rates of childhood poverty. Causal claims: ○ Poverty prevents children from accessing resources they need for development. ○ Poverty rates are the outcome of under-employment, the decline of two-income families, and an eroding work ethic.  Normative claims: ○ This is a national shame. ○ No child deserves to grow up with fewer resources. ○ We should institute a renewed War on Poverty to address this problem head on. ○ People should pull themselves up by their bootstraps Opinions about school desegregation Normative questions are contentious General social survey ( population in favor) differs in gerneal social servey Balkc and whire children attendignthe same schols Busginf of balck an wite children between school districts The social problems process is contentious Some claims succeed in moving to the next stage while others fail to attract much notice. Millions of claims go ignored, dismissed, or discredited. Claimsmaking is competitive. And what matters? Resources: Actors are not equal. Power, status, contacts, education, money, etc. affects who sets the social problem agenda. Rhetoric: Troubling conditions can be understood in many ways. The ability to persuade and appeal to values is critical Crying Indian’ ad - The advertisement addresses the social problem of pollution, but frames it as an issue caused by individual irresponsibility rather than corporate practices. While beverage and packaging companies are the major contributors to environmental hazards, the ad shifts the blame to "litterers." The phrase "People start pollution; people can stop it" emphasizes individual negligence. Featuring Iron Eyes Cody, an Italian-American actor cast as a Native American, the ad evokes guilt and authenticity while erasing the presence of actual Native Americans. The subjectivist approach focuses on individual actions, avoiding corporate responsibility. Surprisingly, YouTube comments on the ad are mostly positive, indicating that many are unaware of its propagandistic nature. The Rhetoric of Claims Claiming that something is a social problem requires that it be persuasive: ○ May or may not be true ○ But the reasoning is convincing to a particular audience Persuasive arguments about social problems typically include ○ Grounds: What is the nature of the problem? Information and evidence about the troubling condition Usually descriptive pollution ○ Warrants: What justifies taking action? Justifications, appeals to values—reasons something must be done about the troubling condition.  Usually normative What common values are violated by this problem? Sacred land is being abused and desecrated. Our environment is suffering because of this. ○ Conclusions: What action should be taken? Recommended changes Ideally based on an accurate understanding of what causes the problem New policies to address the problem People should not litter or abuse the land. Underlying causal argument: the cause of environmental decline is individual action. “People start pollution. People can stop it.” Concept clarification Descriptive claims typically establish the grounds for debate about a social problem Normative claims tend to establish what warrants attention to the social problem Causal claims tend to inform conclusions about how to address a social problem The “descriptive, causal, normative” is a general framework applies not only to social problems but to all sorts of claims about the world. ○ Vary based on what we know about a social problem Claims about poverty expanding child tax credit This is a causal claim about the effect of the expanded child tax credit on childhood poverty. It is based on empirical evidence and would be hard to refute. This is a normative claim about what we should do and what warrants our concerns. It is informed by causal claims, but has strong value undertones The causal claims about unintended consequences are speculative but presented as verified truth Grounds for debate established with descriptive claims about the scale and scope of the problem. Remainder of the essay is essentially a normative argument about why we should seek to abolish poverty and a description of various mechanisms that will keep it entrenched if we do not act. This blurs normative vs causal vs distinctions... it is less of a social problems claim and more of a vision for a new political agenda that is informed by both evidence and normative values. How do we understand social problems? Systematic investigation Questioning our assumptions Suspending judgment ○ Strangers in their own land book Uncovering the "deep story" behind people's attitudes and behaviors reveals the emotional narratives that shape their experiences and perceptions. For many Trump supporters, this deep story involves feeling unfairly held back in their pursuit of the American Dream, perceiving minorities and immigrants as "cutting in line," with the federal government perceived as supporting these groups. This sense of alienation and betrayal, compounded by economic challenges from globalization and automation, fosters a powerful narrative of injustice. Arlie Hochschild's research highlights that these deep stories are rooted in emotional experiences rather than facts or policies. For example, her work with Tea Party supporters in Louisiana showed that many feel as if they have been waiting for their turn at the American Dream, only to see others aided by government programs. This perception of unfairness drives their political beliefs, even if they don’t directly lose from these programs. Understanding these deep stories is crucial for bridging political divides, as it reveals why individuals support leaders like Trump, who validate their feelings of frustration and marginalization. Hochschild emphasizes the importance of recognizing these underlying emotions to truly understand political attitudes. INTERVIEW Deep story = empathic listening. The deep story feeds the political identity we might rely on for protection when we experience difference. How we define a social problem depends on our deep story. Capitalism, racism, patriarchy, colonialism, American exceptionalism. Cutting in line, isolation, and declining status lead to distrust of plurality and distrust of the state and its ability to look after interests. Success sequence- The core argument made by the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) is that following the "Success Sequence" leads to better financial outcomes for women, individuals from low-income backgrounds, and various racial groups. The sequence consists of three steps: obtaining at least a high school education, working full-time, and marrying before having children. The report asserts that failing to follow these steps correlates with higher poverty rates among disadvantaged groups, citing statistics such as the fact that 73% of Black Millennials who didn’t follow all the steps ended up in poverty. It concludes that promoting the "Success Sequence" is crucial for improving economic outcomes for young adults, a point the author agrees with. While critics argue that the sequence overlooks individual obstacles, the author believes it still provides the best opportunity for economic advancement. - I agree with the argument that people who are able to follow the sequence will find more success and are less likely to be in poverty. However, I feel the article does not touch on the fact that it is significantly more difficult for marginalized groups to follow these steps. It is mentioned briefly but offers no solutions to help, except to “spread the message” and involve policymakers. This is not very useful, as it does not truly provide any insight or ways to combat the true issue at hand: access and equal opportunity. Target Audience:  Young adults, particularly from low-income or disadvantaged backgrounds. Policymakers and educators promoting the sequence. Parents and community leaders advocating for youth success. Threats to Causal Claim: Systemic barriers (e.g., inequality, discrimination). Correlation vs. causation confusion. Overlooking individual circumstances. Oversimplification of poverty and inequality causes. 2 American families Debates over the child tax credit Articles reflect competing ideas about the role of government in the US economy Welfare state perspective: focus on addressing equality through government interventions, programs, and top- down redistribution efforts. Neoliberal perspective: focus on promoting efficiency by limiting the involvement of government except in ways that ensure healthy market conditions conducive to competition. The Welfare State Three conceptions ○ Provisions for the poor ○ Social insurance, rights, and social services ○ Economic management and government influence over markets Juxtaposed to neoliberalism because it emphasizes community-minded, public provision of goods over individualistic competition (limiting risks) Political contests largely center on provisions for the poor and the question of who “deserves” social support Neoliberalism Theory of political economic practices Proposes human well-being can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework Strong private property rights, free markets, free trade De-emphasis on state intervention beyond creating and preserving institutional frameworks for market competition Advocates for financial deregulation Individualism as public policy? The success sequence emphasizes individual agency. At a personal level, this appears to be very sound advice.  At a broader level, relying on this approach to address inequality and poverty is akin to taking very little collective action. This fits a neoliberal model of governance that argues for limited public support for families. The Sociological Imagination The tension between the individual and the collective is often hidden from plain sight. Influenced by social structure in a historical moment. Social structures change over time Affects our definition of “human nature” or “common sense” To uncover, we use the “sociological imagination” Poverty in the US Narrowest conception of welfare policy focus Income-based measure defined by Census Dispelling myths about poverty: ○ The “poor” are not a monolith – and many people enter and exit poverty throughout their lifetime ○ 58% of Americans will experience poverty for at least 1 year ○ By age 60, 67% of Americans will have been unemployed for a spell This is a leading “triggering event” that leads to poverty in the US If poverty is an individual failure (as is often portrayed in the US), why does it fluctuate vis-à-vis the economy? - Toward a sociological imagination - Limited income growth for all but top earners - Massive income growth at the very top - Where are top earners making gains? ( capital income and capital gains) The US Welfare State Emerged after the Great Depression. Part of the broader “social safety net” Former system was Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). Reformed in 1996. Current system ○ TANF: Temporary Assistance for Needy Families ○ SNAP: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program ○ EITC: Earned Income Tax Credit ○ Medicaid: Healthcare based on low income ○ Housing assistance Welfare policies to help aid the poor are in tension with concern that welfare is addictive and creates a “free-rider” problem Thus, a tremendous social stigma is attached to welfare. Most people do not want to be on it and exit as quickly as possible. Welfare support for low-income families What is social structure?  - The organization of society that emerges from complex, dynamic, and evolving interactions between individuals, institutions, and their environments at multiple ecological layers. - Microsystem - People, as individual agents: make decisions, leverage strengths, manage weaknesses, face constraints, and deploy cultural schema to make sense of their world. - Mesosystem - The social group to which individuals belong (their family, the school they attend, their local church, an organization they belong to). These are institutions established by law or by custom. They have their own rules (informal/unwritten or formal) and resources. They influence individuals by constructing cultural schema and distributing resources. - Macrosystem - Interaction between mesosystem layers (families influencing schools, schools influencing neighborhoods, families influence each other) in ways that influence the distribution of resources and power. Sometimes, but not always, the macrosystem if embodied by state / government policies that establish the rules to which institutions in the mesosystem adhere. - Individual agency exists, but it is contingent - Choices are constrained by power, resources, information, circumstance - Values, sense of self, understanding of the world shaped by social position and by institutions - Individuals influence institutions as acting members - Reinforce or disrupt dominant rules and cultural schema - Membership influences composition / characteristics of institution - Individuals influence the mesosystem - Especially in positions of broad authority - Political processes - Institutions influence individuals and one another! - Complex interplay between the micro, meso, and macro Gender inequality What is the DIY society according to Calarco, what is the role women play in this structure, and what forces compel them to fall in line? “According to Calarco, the Do-It-Yourself (DIY) society is one in which individuals are expected to solve their own problems without relying on the government or employers for support. In this neoliberal structure, those who struggle or fail to solve their issues are shamed and denied assistance, reinforcing a belief in personal responsibility over collective welfare.”Women, in particular, are compelled to fall into this structure due to cultural and societal forces, such as early teachings of motherly values, gender norms, and economic structures. These pressures, along with weak social safety nets, push women into caregiving roles, lower-paying jobs, and limit their career options, forcing them to prioritize caregiving over professional advancement. Social Identity Social identity is a group membership: Affiliation with a social, political, religious, employment institution, though not always formal Position within a hierarchical social structure Some identities are assigned, others voluntary We have multiple social identities, some more salient to our daily lives than others We may feel affinity to our social identity, but we might also resist the label or its stereotypical portrayal In either case, our “self” is positioned in relationship to this identity Three big organizing social identities in the U.S. social structure - Gender+sexuality; race+ethnicity, class They are related to structural arrangements of inequality. In the US: Class: capitalism, neoliberalism Race: racism, white supremacy Gender: sexism, patriarchy, heteronormativity Social Standards: Tony Neumann feels guilty about not being able to support his family financially when experiencing frequent episodes of unemployment. Racial Inequality: Jackie Stanley is limited in her economic production because of her identity, and her employers’ unwillingness to give her opportunities in affluent areas. Progress toward gender equality... has stalled In Chapters 2 and 3 of Holding it Together, values and motivations center on societal norms and financial pressures. The image of the working man and stay-at-home mom is deeply ingrained, leading to fathers being rewarded at work while mothers face penalties. Women are often forced into undesirable roles, such as staying in toxic relationships or sacrificing career ambitions due to weak social safety nets. While childcare and balancing work and family are concerns for both genders, the burden of expensive, inaccessible childcare affects everyone, though women often bear the brunt of these issues. Chapter 1 - Where is there agency and where is there constraint in the decision about if and when to become a mother? - Access to birth control - Access to abortion - Sexual violence - Social and religious pressure Chapter 2 - How will low-income families make ends meet? - Gendered norms and expectations; - Male breadwinner incentive to work more - Leaves women more likely to be the default parent; - Women then taking on additional caretaking roles; - Gendered “division of labor” - What about women’s preferences in this? Chapter 3 - Moral trappings among high-income families - Childcare decisions - How takes over when there is a lapse in childcare? - What kinds of exploitation are required for the childcare to be affordable? - How does “guilt” affect how men and women respond to family needs? Social Standards: Terry Neumann’s identity/aspirations changed from individual with goals to mom with responsibilities. Authors claim that progress may require: Increases in men’s participation in household and care work Governmental provision of childcare Adoption by employers of policies that reduce gender discrimination and help both men and women combine jobs with family care responsibilities The article begins by making descriptive claims about the scope and scale of the problem (gender inequality), and then introduces Conclusions. These conclusions imply a causal argument - Suggested causal arguments: Asymmetric change: Women’s entrance to careers came more readily than changes in men’s roles at home. Further change will require deeper changes in both cultural attitudes and institutional practices. This academic language is careful not to overstate the study’s ability to explain the causes of the stalled gender revolution. Causes of gender inequality: institutions Proposed solutions “Childcare responsibility unevenly falls on women. Would require public provision of child care and changes in family leave policy to address.” Reduce gender bias by employers “Comparable worth” - There is strong suggestive evidence that employers take the sex composition of jobs into account when setting their pay levels; studies find lower relative pay in predominantly female occupations than can be explained by their skill requirements or working conditions Institutions are organized collectives with established roles and rules. These can be changed by state policies (i.e. anti- discrimination legislation) or by local institutional rules that influence behavior and roles. Institutional processes often determine how power and resources will be distributed. They occupy the meso-level of social structure. Causes of gender inequality: culture - Gender norms Norms are expectations imposed by our collective culture that guide our behavior. People can defy norms or adhere to them. Norms often make society function, but for whom? There is often an implicit power imbalance in who gets to define and enforce norms on others. Norms are enacted by individuals at the micro-level of social structure in relationship to competition for rewards / power / safety that are enforced and distributed at the meso-level of social structure. Defining culture - The way of life of a people; everything one would need to know to become a functioning member of a society. Technology and material artifacts Publicly available symbolic vehicles of experiencing and expressing meaning Formal: beliefs, ritual practices, art forms, ceremonies Informal: language, gossip, stories, rituals of daily life Context through which values are constructed and reproduced Multivalent: many cultures/subcultures/countercultures exist at once (U.S., Cornell, Ithaca, family, classroom...) Where do cultural values come from? Sociological perspective: Culture is multivalent, heterogeneous, contested, messy Set of strategies used by actors to navigate interactions and justify behavior Can constrain or facilitate patterns of action Echoes of past heritages Changes under different structural conditions People adopt varying “cultural toolkits” as they navigate their place in the world, communities, families, classrooms, etc. We learn cultural values through the process of socialization What is socialization? Socialization describes the social processes that bring people in line with the social structure Learning the norms and roles of society, and one’s place in it Typically described as a feature of child development. Can also refer to how newcomers learn formal and informal rules of a society Ex: Nunez in “The Country of the Blind” power hierarchies people have agency  Socialization processes may be resisted and subverted by alternative messaging Not a fixed outcome; culture changes over time and is contingent on context/interaction Sex Classification and Gender Gender: A social system assigning unequal status to men and women. ○ Establishes social norms for expected behavior ○ Defines social roles – position and responsibilities in division of labor in various domains (workplace, family, etc.) ○ The male-female binary system is being challenged. Sex: A classification based on biological criteria (chromosomes, organs). Sex Category: Assumed biological category based on social display aligning with sex classification. Media and Gender Norms Media portrays boys as adventurous leaders, girls focused on appearance and social relationships. Children's toys reflect gendered interests: girls' toys emphasize beauty, boys' toys promote action and aggression. Parenting and Gender Types of parenting: ○ Naturalizers, Cultivators, Refiners, Innovators, Resisters. Parents’ success varies based on their efforts to challenge or conform to gender norms. Disrupting Gender Norms Parents have limited agency in disrupting gender norms; social roots require collective change. Strategies for change include exposing problems, demythologizing reified status, and redistributing power. Women shouldnt have to be doing so muhc for so little. And they wouldnt have to if we had a real safety net. With the right investments and polices, countries can protext people fom exploitation and gran then diginity throughout their lives - Freedom from exploitation - Living with dignity When Clara O. refers to the engineers of the DIY society, she is talking about the political, corporate, and cultural elites who benefit from this individualist framework. These elites promote a meritocratic belief system where success is framed as the result of hard work and personal effort, making structural reform challenging. By focusing on individual responsibility, these elites justify their privilege while reinforcing a system where women are left to manage both household and economic burdens without adequate support. Calarco 4&5- faith in individualism and meritocracy legitimate the status quo and prevent us from investing in a public safety net leabing women to hold it tog Meritocracy - idea that skill and effort are rewarded in society Related to indivualism - ppl are responsible fo their economic ocnditions American dream - education US not tru meritocracy bd=c family background doe simpaoct economic earnings But upward mobility Meritocracy: Key Findings 1. Personal Effort vs. Opportunity Structure ○ While individual effort and ambition are important, the availability of resources and opportunities plays a significant role in determining success. Example: A student may lack access to Advanced Placement (AP) courses, limiting their academic advancement. 2. Impact of Family Background ○ Parental income is a strong predictor of a child's future earnings, highlighting the influence of family socioeconomic status on upward mobility. 3. Upward Economic Mobility ○ Although some individuals can rise from poverty to prosperity, this requires exceptional skills and determination. Such success stories are outliers, not the norm. Linking Meritocracy to Gender Inequality Calarco’s Argument: ○ Meritocracy glorifies individualism and discourages investment in a comprehensive safety net. ○ Women are often left to manage their households and careers, with the expectation that their situations will improve through better personal choices. ○ The critique is not against hard work or good decision-making, but rather that these efforts alone do not safeguard against economic instability. Introducing Part 2: Critique of Current Systems Core Assertion:  ○ "Women shouldn’t have to be doing so much for so little. And they wouldn’t have to if we had a real safety net. With the right investments and policies, countries can protect people from exploitation and grant them dignity throughout their lives." Chapters Overview: ○ Chapter 4: Emphasis on Individualism ○ Chapter 5: Belief in Meritocracy ○ Chapter 6: Reification of Gender Roles ○ Chapter 7: Myth of the “Super Mom” Understanding Gender Reification 1. Social Construction of Gender: ○ The gender system is often seen as "rigged," but no single actor is responsible. ○ The illusion of a "natural" gender order supports gender inequality, often framed as essentialism (e.g., men being less emotional, women being naturally empathetic). 2. Reification: ○ This is the process of attributing a social construct to a natural origin, either through direct messaging or socialization. ○ Example: Dennis and Bethany's choices reflect societal norms: Dennis as the breadwinner while Bethany becomes a stay-at-home parent due to childcare costs. 3. Consequences of Reified Logic: ○ Power Dynamics: Conceals the power one group holds over another. ○ Behavior Justification: Provides a rationale for perpetuating gender inequality. ○ Barriers to Change: Makes collective efforts for change more challenging. Gender Roles and Norms Definition: ○ Gender Roles: Responsibilities assigned to women and men in various spheres (workplace, family). ○ Gender Norms: Expected behaviors based on perceived sex categories. Enforcement and Rationale: ○ Gender norms create expectations that lead to inequalities within the household and beyond. The enforcement of these norms often goes unquestioned. Discussing Gender as a Social Construct 1. Challenges in Convincing Others: ○ Personal beliefs about innate gender differences can be deeply ingrained, making it challenging to change perceptions. ○ Cultural backgrounds influence how gender roles are perceived and accepted.  2. Performance of Gender: ○ Metaphor of a Play: Individuals play assigned gender roles based on perceived sex. Roles come with varying levels of power and prestige (e.g., main vs. supporting character). Agency exists within these roles, allowing individuals to navigate, question, or change their assignments. Doing Gender Building into Social Structures: ○ Gender norms infiltrate organizations, shaping practices and relationships in various contexts, including workplaces and families. Norms and Expectations: ○ Gender norms pressure individuals to conform, leading to distinct behaviors and relationships that reinforce existing inequalities. ○ The hierarchical nature of gender dynamics often places greater burdens on women. Consequences of Doing Gender 1. Emergence of the Gender Wage Gap: ○ Gender differences are learned behaviors, not inherent traits. ○ Gender roles significantly influence life decisions and societal interactions. 2. Myth of the Super Mom: ○ Driven by the belief that women can "have it all," this myth sets unrealistic expectations for mothers. ○ Women are often seen as the guardians against economic precarity, which further complicates their roles and responsibilities. Gender as Ideology Understanding Ideologies: ○ Ideologies are systems of beliefs that may not always be explicitly stated. ○ They are often internalized, shaping thought and action through socialization and interaction. Dominant Ideologies: ○ Reinforce the status quo and normalize power differentials, making them difficult to challenge. ○ The interplay of gender ideology with meritocracy suggests that societal hierarchies are "natural," obscuring the learned behaviors and ideological influences behind them. Definition of Housing Insecurity  Housing insecurity refers to: ○ Difficulty acquiring housing ○ Minimal control over one's housing situation ○ Risk of losing housing ○ Uncertainty about housing tenure ○ Living in housing that does not meet basic household needs There is an increase relative cost of housing Key Elements of Housing Insecurity 1. Affordability 2. Credit 3. Availability 4. Residential Instability 5. Gentrification and Displacement Mechanisms Contributing to Housing Insecurity Social Networks: Support systems that can influence housing stability. Landlords: Their practices and policies can significantly impact tenants' security. Real Estate Intermediaries: Agents and brokers who can facilitate or hinder access to housing. The Role of Policy in Housing Security Public Housing: Government-funded housing to assist low-income families. Housing Voucher Programs: Financial assistance for renting homes. Tenant Protections: Laws and regulations to safeguard tenants’ rights. Gentrification and Displacement Key Observations Changes in neighborhoods like Harlem, Bed-Stuy, and the Mission District. Gentrification typically leads to: ○ Shifts in population demographics. ○ Alterations in local businesses and neighborhood character. Relevance of Gentrification Impact on historically marginalized neighborhoods that have been avoided by higher-income populations. Key Questions to Consider What kind of data are used in studies on housing insecurity and gentrification? Are there threats to internal validity (the study's reliability)? Are there threats to external validity (the generalizability of findings)? How might findings inform future housing policies? Sociological Methods Internal vs. External Validity Internal Validity: Ensures a study logically and reliably supports claims with evidence. External Validity: Assesses whether claims can generalize beyond the specific case being studied. The Truth About Gentrification A measured academic opinion: ○ Dispel common misconceptions. ○ Identify consequences of gentrification. ○ Carefully consider what claims can be supported by evidence. Research Overview Quantitative Design: ○ Data: Observed New York Medicaid records (2009-2015). ○ Analysis Focus: Likelihood of poor residents moving from gentrifying neighborhoods. ○ Published after extensive peer review. Gentrification as a Social Problem Scale of Gentrification Investigating how much gentrification is occurring and its impact on neighborhoods. Distinction from Neighborhood Integration Matt desmon Most evictions occur in poor, segregated neighborhoods, not necessarily in gentrifying areas. If focusing on displacement and social mobility, gentrification may not be the primary concern Notes on Housing Insecurity and Gentrification Key Ideas 1. Varied Meanings of Terms: ○ Terms like “gentrification” have multiple meanings and normative implications. ○ Definitions shape problem understanding and policy implementation. 2. Types of Claims: ○ Descriptive: What is the scale of the problem? Is it common or rare? Is the experience uniform? ○ Causal: What factors contribute to the problem? What historical roots exist? What impacts does the problem have? ○ Normative: What actions should be taken? Why is the issue significant? Appeal to values. 3. Role of Social Science: ○ Gather empirical evidence to inform policy decisions regarding housing insecurity and gentrification. Case Study: Cleveland, OH Background: ○ Rust Belt city with significant population decline since the 1960s (22.7% since 2000). ○ High levels of racial residential segregation. Racial Segregation Factors: Historical Migration: Black migration for industrial jobs resulted in confined housing areas. Social Barriers: Violence threats, high costs, and limited social networks restricted entry into white neighborhoods. Government Policies: Federal support for white homeownership and redlining practices. Consequences of Past Policies: Long-term discrimination has led to resource suppression in predominantly Black communities. Economic decline and rising poverty increased policing and instability. Contemporary period: Fair Housing Act, Equal Employment Opportunity Act, Civil Rights Act. - Discrimination is ostensibly illegal Tenant Rights and Reporting Tenant Protections: Tenants can report neglect or abuse, but many do not due to:  ○ Lack of Awareness: Many tenants are unaware of their rights. ○ Fear of Retaliation: Reporting could lead to eviction or rent hikes. ○ Distrust in Authorities: Marginalized communities often distrust government institutions. Factors Influencing Reporting: Administrative Burdens: Psychological and compliance costs hinder tenant action. Systemic Challenges: Underfunded agencies slow enforcement processes. Macro and Micro-Level Influences Macro-Level: Unemployment, housing supply issues, landlord-tenant laws. Micro-Level: Individual experiences of fear, legal cynicism, and administrative burdens. Performance vs. Ostension: Ostensive: Policies as stated; how they should work on paper. Performative: Actual implementation and the gaps that arise. Sociological Methods Qualitative Research: Interviews, ethnographies, and content analysis. Quantitative Research: Statistical analysis, descriptive and causal studies. Validity in Research: Internal Validity: Logical, evidence-supported claims. External Validity: Generalizability of findings. Threats to Validity: Social Desirability Bias: Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers. Confirmation Bias: Researchers may ignore contradictory evidence. Confounding Bias: Misinterpretation of causal relationships due to unaccounted variables. ○ Correlation is not causation ○ Study the effect of rental protection laws on rates of landlord abuse. ○ Is the lack of an association in Cleveland because rental protection laws ineffective? The mayor of Cleveland explained the complexities of enforcing tenant rights while considering the financial interests of landlords and property owners. This relates to the micro-meso-macro theory of structure: Micro Level: Individual tenants face eviction and struggle with poor living conditions due to low rent. Meso Level: Local governments grapple with balancing strict enforcement of tenant rights and maintaining the stability of the real estate market. Macro Level: Broader economic systems, particularly capitalism, influence power dynamics, often favoring landlords over tenants. Notes on Problematic Landlord Behavior Key Issues Abusive Behavior: ○ Coercive actions that may be illegal, such as: Removing doors. Cutting off Christmas lights. Enforcing surveillance by neighbors. ○ Landlords often rationalize their actions by citing legal cynicism and blaming tenants for a "culture of poverty." Unintended Policy Effects on Landlord Behavior Complexity of Social Problems: ○ All social issues are considered “wicked” problems, meaning they are difficult to define and solve. ○ Interventions can create unintended consequences, resembling a "whack-a-mole" game where solving one problem can lead to others. ○ Example: Introducing a new plant-eating bug can disrupt an entire ecosystem, affecting various species. Landlord Perspectives on Policy Impacts Eviction Process: ○ Lengthy eviction processes can lead to informal evictions and foster landlord legal cynicism. Financial Strain: ○ Difficulty in recovering lost rent can lead to discriminatory tenant screening practices. ○ Financial responsibility for issues like trash management and water bills can result in increased landlord surveillance and mistrust of tenants. Tenant Rights Enforcement:  ○ Inspections often depend on tenant requests, leading to fears of retaliation, which limits the enforcement of tenant rights laws. Collateral damages argues that landlord abuse is a structural probelm Ostensive vs perormative policy - “ through ethnogrpahic obersvations and interviews with landloads and authorities, this book has revealed a system of law s that perpetuates inequality perhaps unitnetionally because it fails to account for both landlord and teneat social nd economic circumstances Proposed solutions Tenant bhaviors and resources - Reducing administratucve burden for tenants to file claims - Expanding access to info aout tenets rights - Proactive info about tenant fnacnial assistance - Legal counsel - This is an example of costbenifit analysis used to ecamin taeoffs and identigy net budgetary effects of a policy.. This matters for conces about efficient Landlords - Mentor landors on how to manage - Educate on logal responsililite dand best practices Instituational changes - Proactive code enforcement - Community porgrams and grants - Federal investment in water inrastrucutre - Landlord responsibility for crimanl ordinances - Fair housing act antidiscrinimiation - Improve hosing voucher programs - Discrimination based on income - Smalls rea far market rent - Improve inspection process Contectual chaches - Financial safety net with renters tax and expanded supplementary income - Expand public housing - Affordable homeowenrship Notes on Policy Neutrality and Normative Objectives Key Concepts No Neutral Policies: ○ All policies have a starting position and a theory of change. Starting Position Includes: Accepted Factors:  ○ What factors are taken as given? (e.g., housing stock, historical segregation) Key Actors: ○ Identification of people, institutions, firms, or state representatives involved. Level of Intervention: ○ Whether the intervention is federal, state, local, or institutional. Theory of Change Causal Claims: ○ Reflects claims about the sources of the problem, potentially including historical roots. ○ Focuses on how an intervention will resolve the problem. Influence of Rhetoric and Resources Shaped by Power: ○ The starting position and theory of change are influenced by social power dynamics. Competing Normative Objectives Policies Reflect Normative Objectives: ○ Different starting positions influence potential solutions. US Policy Focus Efficiency vs. Equity: ○ Increasing emphasis on efficiency over equity in policy analysis. Normative Objectives Explained 1. Equity: ○ Factors to consider: Group inclusion and assessment of merit. Methods of distribution (competition, lottery, etc.). Balancing individual, communal, and state interventions. 2. Efficiency: ○ Achieving objectives with minimal resources involves: Defining the main goal and balancing multiple objectives. Identifying beneficiaries. Considering resources as investments vs. costs. 3. Welfare or Need: ○ Considerations include the value of goods, short vs. long-term support, measures of poverty vs. inequality, and debates on moral hazard. 4. Liberty:  ○ Balancing freedom from coercion with freedom from harm, responsibilities, and behavior change. 5. Security: ○ Measuring risks, perceptions of threat, tolerance for risk, target populations, and the impact of surveillance. Conversations in Policy Framework Conversation One: ○ Focuses on incremental change, nudges, and incentives (common in applied microeconomics). Conversation Two: ○ Emphasizes structural change and addressing root causes (common in sociology). Application to Greif's Proposals Conversation One Example: ○ Mentoring landlords and providing information on tenants' rights—targets information gaps without coercion. Conversation Two Example: ○ Reversing neoliberal policies to expand public housing—addresses root causes of housing insecurity. Proposed Solutions to Housing Insecurity Contextual Changes: ○ Beyond housing policy, includes financial safety nets, renter’s tax credits, expanded public housing, and affordable homeownership. Federal Solutions Current Proposals: ○ Capping rent increases for corporate landlords. ○ Sustainable repurposing of public land for affordable housing. ○ Rehabilitation of distressed housing and revitalization grants. Caution in Policy Analysis Consider unintended consequences of policy recommendations to avoid harmful outcomes. Local Solutions Example Mixed-Income Housing: ○ Funded by tax revenue, not private developers, to create mixed-income apartments in high-demand areass