PSYU3339 Final Notes PDF

lOMoARcPSD|13045803 PSYU3339 – final notes Psychological Science: Putting Theory into Practice (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university...

lOMoARcPSD|13045803 PSYU3339 – final notes Psychological Science: Putting Theory into Practice (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 PSYU3399 – PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE WEEK 2: RESEARCH ETHICS AT MACQUARIE WHAT IS ETHICS Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores what ought to be decent and appropriate human behaviour DISTINCTION BETWEEN FACTS AND VALUES Facts: Descriptive or explanatory Values/Ethics: Normative, prescriptive and evaluative  Ethics concern how we should live and act  Right, wrong, just, evil, responsible, fair, bad Normative ethics Descriptive Ethics Applied Ethics Studies ethical action Studies ethical beliefs Studies how ethics can be applied to various fields  Focuses on theorizing  Focuses on investigating how we ought to behave, moral beliefs and what  Focuses on applying what are right and wrong motivates people to act ethical theories and actions ethically. principles to particular domains (bioethics, environmental ethics, research ethics) NORMATIVE ETHICS Three Core theories: 1. Consequentialism Utilitarianism: Stuart Mill & Jeremy Bentham  Focuses on the consequences of our actions  Main concepts: - Utility of actions - Good intention - Greatest good for the greatest number - Critique  Unintended consequences with no good outcomes  What about the ones who are not included? Example that challenges the approach  Train track scenario Exception to this: Sally chooses mother over children. 2. Deontological ethics Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 Kant (18th century) We have a duty to behave in a way that is aligned with our rationality and that:  Leads to universalisable actions  Is based on humanist principles (dignity/integrity) Main concepts:  Categorical imperatives  Duty Critique  Removes the personal factor (agency)  Ignores emotions/feelings (duty supersedes emotions)  There could be conflicting duties (e.g. The duty to your family may conflict with the duty to your employer) Example that challenges the approach Conflict of interest and not disclosing information to favour someone. 3. Virtue Ethics Aristotle 380 BC Ethical behaviour results from developing good character through the development of virtues (courage, benevolence, compassion, loyalty)  Critique - What virtues should we be developing? Valued virtues differ depending on the context? - Virtuous character may lead to good actions - In particular situations virtues could be conflicting Examples that challenges this approach  Choosing to be part of a protest for a good cause but is compassionate and does not like violence. ETHICS AND PACE - Reciprocity - Mutual benefit (to the student, organisation and university) How to ensure this?  Understand the value and contribution of your activity  Understand the value and ethics of your organisation  Understand the community it serves APPLIED ETHICS IN RESEARCH Concerns with participating in a study that influences religion or life choices  Time and cost  Will I be endangered  Privacy  What training do researchers have  Can I still quit  How is information stores HUMAN RESEARCH What constitutes human research 2 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Taking part in surveys, interviews, focus groups  Psychological, physiological, medical testing or treatment  Observation by researchers  Access to personal documents or other materials  Collection of body organs, tissues, exhaled breath  Access to personal information – either identifiable, re- identifiable, non-identifiable – as part of an existing published or unpublished source or database. PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL RESEARCH  Merit and Integrity (purpose of research, dissemination of results, trained researcher)  Justice (fairness to participants in recruitment and effort requested)  Beneficence (benefits will outweigh costs)  Respect (voluntary nature, privacy, confidentiality) WEEK 3: INTEGRATING PSYCHOLOGY DISCIPLINES: AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR AGGRESSION  Aggression is a part of everyday life (though rarely a pleasant note)  It is found in homes, the sporting field, seats of power and corporate boardrooms... the list is long  Whether or not someone gets physically hurt, aggressive behaviour comes with its own language that gets the message across: I want to hurt you. WHAT IS AGGRESSION?  Any behaviour directed towards another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm (Anderson & Bushman, 2002)  To rule out consensual harm (e.g. dentistry, sado-masochistic sex) another proviso is usually added.  The target must be motivated to avoid the behaviour WHAT IS VIOLENCE?  Violence is aggression that has extreme harm at its goal (e.g. severe injury or death)  All violence is aggression (but not all aggression is violence) ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Male animals are more aggressive, more likely to attack and more likely to fight CONRAD LORENZ, 1966  The hydraulic hypothesis (also builds on energy model): - Aggression is instinctual - Not caused by the environment – rather it is ‘released’ or ‘unlocked’ in certain circumstances - Instinctual aggression then ‘pushes out’ - Needs to be ‘released’ regularly or aggression becomes pent up - E.g. Male doves prevented from courting and mating have an excess of ‘pent up’ energy - Basis for catharsis hypothesis (now disproven for aggression) - Lack of empirical support both in humans and animals - Many exceptions in animal research 3 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY DSM – V  Anti-social, Narcissistic, Borderline Paranoid personality disorders  Conduct Disorder in children  Addiction, esp: alcohol, amphetamines, ice  Paranoia, delusions, psychosis  Sadism, masochism  Intermittent explosive disorder  Adjustment disorder with conduct disturbance  Problems related to abuse or neglect  Conflict management, anger management, counselling for aggression  Therapeutic interventions for DV, anger, aggression, violence  Integration of therapeutic approaches where issues are complex (e.g., DV) COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY  Leonard Berkowitz, Rowell Huesmann, Ken dodge  Neural networks and information processing NEURAL NETWORKS When we experience something, a cluster of neurons (a node) is set aside to recognise it again  When we experience that thing again the node becomes activated.  Nodes that are activated together become wired together  The more often nodes are activated together, the stronger the link becomes  Because of these links, activating one node will begin to activate linked nodes. For example: The more aggression and violence we experience, the greater the number of nodes and the strength of the connections. If the same sequence of events plays out often enough, either in real life, or vicariously through: - Seeing it in real life - Seeing it in the media - Playing it on a video game - etc. Then it becomes like a script that plays out the same way whenever it is triggered COGNITIVE NEO-ASSOCIATION THEORY 4 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 Assumes that memories, emotions, thoughts and plans for action are linked together in the brain in just this way - Berkowitz, 1990; 1993  When one part of this network is activated (e.g., the part of the brain that registers frustration), the linked parts (such as the parts that register anger, contain the concepts of various swear words, or store memories of other frustrations), also become activated.  The parts that are most strongly activated are the parts that will have the greatest influence on that person’s eventual actions.  Unpleasant or threatening situations (e.g., frustration, provocation, perceived threats, loud noises etc.), arouse negative feelings  These in turn stimulate various thoughts, memories and physiological responses associated with both fight tendencies and flight tendencies  Fight tendencies  anger  Flight tendencies  fear  Depending on the nature of the situation and the prior experiences and personality of the person, one tendency will come to dominate the other.  If anger/fight tendencies dominate, the types of thoughts, feelings and plans for action that are most strongly activated will usually increase the likelihood of an aggressive response. Limitation of the theory: Doesn’t have to have a negative feeling (sadness, anger) to show aggression, some people are naturally aggressive. SCRIPT THEORY  Researchers like Rowell Huesmann takes this approach a step further and talks about aggressive episodes running like a movie script  When a situation is very familiar we tend to play things out in a similar way most times until the response becomes automatic whenever that situation arises (domestic violence can occur in this way). DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY  Development of aggression over the lifespan  Large longitudinal studies  Constancy of trait aggression cross lifespan: most aggressive in early-life (usually decreases)  Influence of parents, media, environment  Gene-environment interactions  Hostile attributional bias  feeling that the world is against them. EMOTION  Anger and aggression  Links are robust  Shame and aggression  Strongly linked  Humiliation and aggression  Jealousy and aggression (evolutionary hypothesis)  Frustration – aggression hypothesis FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS Dollard et al (1938)  Built on Freud’s ideas about frustration in the pursuit of pleasure 5 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  When blocked from attaining a goal frustration ensues  All frustration leads to aggression  All instances of aggression can be traced back to frustration  Clearly not always true (but often is) EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY  Aggression ‘hard-wired’  Strong links with animal work  Reproductive success, survival of the fittest - Coopting resources of others - Defending against attack - Inflicting costs on same sex rivals - Status and power hierarchies - Deterring rivals - Deterring infidelity HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY  Particularly concerned with links between physical health and psychological phenomena  Aggressive individuals are at increased risk of poor health, early mortality, mental health problems, and decreased life satisfaction. (e.g., Denson et al 2008).  Injury, recovery, trauma related to being a victim of aggression/violence LEARNING THEORIES  Hugely influential  Explain both the acquisition and the maintenance of aggressive behaviour  Aggression is often learned: - Classical conditioning - Instrumental learning  Reward aggression, punish non-aggression (subtle or obvious)  Can be vicarious (seen at home or on TV) - Social learning SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that people acquire aggressive tendencies through direct experience (aggressive behaviour) has brought them rewards in the past) or through observing and copying the behaviour of aggressive role models  Bobo doll experiments  Showing kids did the same aggressive things to the doll that they observed others doing.  Results reveal the occurrence of observational learning in the absence of reinforcement to the observers. More likely to copy aggressive models  Who are respected or liked or high status  Who are familiar or similar  Who are rewarded for their behaviours  If we have self-efficacy for aggression Imitation seems to be hard-wired from both and to continue through the life span. NEUROLOGICAL APPROACHES 6 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Genetics  Epi-genetics: Gene-environment interactions  Stephen Maxson: 17 genes are linked with aggressive behaviour but are never direct – usually in conjunction with a particular type of environment or predisposition (e.g., impulsivity) that enhances the likelihood of aggression  Polymorphism in the promoter of the MAOA gene (interacting with child maltreatment)  Kids behaviour and personality can be linked to aggression.  Variation in serotonin transporter gene  Poor impulse control (can’t control aggression) NEUROTRANSMITTERS LINKED WITH REPRESSION  Serotonin deficits linked to aggression - Serotonin linked with impulse control; low serotonin poorer impulse control  Hi GABA levels in rodents linked with aggression; little human data  Dopamine levels with ADHD, impulsivity - Impulsivity then linked with aggression HORMONES LINKED TO AGGRESSION  High testosterone linked to aggression - Especially when also low cortisol, serotonin  Low cortisol, low oxytocin - But some paradoxical effects with oxytocin  Low oestrogen, progesterone - Some evidence, findings mixed BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES Different brain structures  Damage to the frontal lobes (uninhibited) - Structural and functional deficits in  Orbitofrontal cortex (mostly RH)  Anterior Cingulate Cortex (Mostly RH)  Dorsolateral Prefrontal cortex (LH)  Activation of Limbic System (‘old’ part of brain; primitive instincts and survival) - especially in Amygdala (emotion centre) Attenuation of the stress system; under arousal (Susman, 2006; Adrian Raine)  Increased aggression is associated with: - Lower resting heart rate (even at age 3!) - Under-arousal of both the central nervous system and autonomic nervous system - Lower electro dermal, cardiovascular, and cortical (i.e., EEG) arousal - Low basal cortisol (stress hormone) levels Arousal and Excitation transfer  Looks at interplay between people’s thoughts and their levels of physiological arousal.  In 1962, Schachter and Singer injected people with adrenalin (increased arousal) then exposed them to actors either being silly or showing anger.  Anger OR euphoria response depending on their cognitive appraisal of the cause  Zillman: excitation can be transferred ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 7 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Bullying in the workplace  Workplace aggression  Indirect aggression  Dominance and status PERCEPTION PSYCHOLOGY  Role of what we see, hear, feel  Cues for fight or flight mechanisms,  peripheral vision  Noise, heat and aggression PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY  Aggressive drive: Sigmund Freud  Every person has innate aggressive and sexual drives that provide much of the energy that pushes them forward in life.  Thanatos; death wish  BUT: The more advanced the animal, the more able it is to inhibit aggressive urges.  Trait aggression, Trait Anger, Trait Irritability, Impulsivity  Emotional susceptibility  Callous and unemotional traits - Psychopathy - Machiavellianism - Narcissism, both overt and covert  Shame proneness  Rumination (low dissipation)  Big 5 - Low agreeableness (straightforwardness, compliance, altruism) - Low conscientiousness (deliberation) - High neuroticism (angry hostility) - Low extraversion (warmth) RELATIONSHIP PSYCHOLOGY  Indirect aggression and relational aggression  Domestic violence  Child abuse  Power and dominance  Jealousy  Overlap with evolutionary psychology  Relational schemas SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY  Aggression elicited by the situation rather than the personality  Cognitive dissonance theory  Social cognition - Schemas, scripts, knowledge structures - Learned social behaviours - Triggers and cues - Media effects - Automaticity, priming 8 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 SOCIAL INTERACTION THEORY  Portrays aggression as a way of achieving desired goals. Very instrumental approach.  These goals may include: - Obtaining something of value, - Getting revenge, or - Putting forward a desired image (such as being tough or competent). GENERAL AGGRESSION MODEL  Craig Anderson and Brad Bushman have put together a model that incorporates 5 theories into a General Aggression Model (GAM).  In this theory, an episode of aggression firstly depends on the nature of the situation (the aspects of the situation that can trigger aggression) and what the person brings to it (the beliefs, personality factors, memories, etc that increase their readiness to aggress in that situation)  Whether or not someone responds to a situation with aggression depends firstly on the nature of the thoughts, feelings and physiological responses that are aroused, and then on how much that person thinks through their response GAM INPUTS – PERSON INPUTS  Evolutionary factors and drives  Biological factors; genetic predispositions  Personality (including schemas etc)  Cognitive factors: beliefs, attitudes, scripts  Emotional tendencies; temperament  Gender  Perceptions  Affect out readiness to respond to a situation with aggressiveness GAM INPUTS – SITUATIONAL FACTORS 9 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Aggressive cues  Provocation  Frustration  Pain  Drugs  Triggers GAM ROUTES – COGNITION  Activation of hostile thoughts, schemas, scripts, beliefs, attributions  For example: The activation of a hostile attributional bias  Learning theory; social learning theory  Script theory  Cognitive-neoassociation theory  Social cognition GAM ROUTES – AFFECTS Mood and emotion  Activation of feelings of anger, hostility, shame, humiliation etc Expressive motor responses (evolved)  Are automatic physiological reactions that occur in conjunction with specific emotions, usually involving changes to facial expressions GAM ROUTES - AROUSAL  Complicated: some types of arousal reduce heart rate, sweating, BP etc. whilst others increase it  Under researched  Energises and strengthens the tendency to act  Excitation transfer GAM OUTCOMES – IMMEDIATE APPRAISAL  Influenced strongly by present internal state  Automatic, effortless, spontaneous, unaware. May lead to automatic response (drives, evolution, CNT, emotion, biological, clinical)  If resources are sufficient (the person has enough time to make a considered response and the cognitive capacity is available) AND  If the immediate appraisal outcome (automatic response) is both important and unsatisfying, then the person will engage in a more effortful use of reappraisals. GAM OUTCOMES – RE-APPRAISAL  Search for an alternative view of the situation.  Can involve many cycles of considering past experiences, possible causes for the event, relevant memories, and delving deeper into the features of the current situation.  Many alternatives might be considered and discarded  Eventually the cycling process ceases and a course of thoughtful action takes place. WEEK 4: INTEGRATEINS PSYCHOLOGY DISCIPLINES: MASS MEDIA INFLUENCES 10 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 STATISTICS  Huston 1992 estimated by the age of 18 US children have witnessed 200,000 acts of violence and 8,000 murders on TV alone  More recent estimate up to 40,000 ARE RESEARCHERS EVENLY SPLIT ON MEDIA VIOLENCE EFFECTS Effects of violent media on kids and adults: Arnold Schwarzenegger and Edmund Brown vs Video software dealers association and entertainment software association  US supreme court: Fines selling VVGs to minors  2 Amicus Curiae (friend of the court) briefs - Gruel brief – 13 authors, 102 signees (all scholars)  for the fines - Millet brief – 82 signees  against the fines Deana Pollard Sacks et al (2011) compared track records of the authors/signees for the 2 briefs. - Substantially higher academic record in the Gruel group than the Millet group THE GRUEL STATEMENT  Violent video games clearly show that such games are causally related to later aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents  Extensive research has been conducted over many years using all three major types of research designs (experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal). Overall, the research data conclude that exposure to violent video games causes an increase in the likelihood of aggressive behavior. ESTABLISHED EFFECTS OF VIOLENT MEDIA Both short term and long term effects  Increases in aggressive thoughts, feelings and behaviour  More fearful - Overestimate likelihood of a victim - Age dependent  Emotional Desensitisation to violence - Less concerned about others suffering - Tolerate increasing levels of violence in the world around them  Subtle long-term changes to thinking: - Hostile attributional bias - Increase in normative beliefs approving aggression (aggression is normal) - Aggressive problem solving scripts for behaviour 11 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 - Increased appetite for aggressive media  Decreased empathy  Decreased prosocial behaviour HOWEVER: RISK FACTOR APPROACH Violent and fairly aggressive behaviour has multiple contributing risk factors  These may include personality traits, type of family and peer environment, access to weapons, mental health issues etc  These can be balanced by protective factors – caring community, warm parenting, peers etc.  Not one factor is necessary or sufficient to cause violence BUT Media violence exposure is one risk we can change ANDERSON WARBURTON ET AL 2017 STUDY Risk factors for aggression: 1. Peer delinquency 2. Media violence 3. Peer victimization 4. Neighborhood crime 5. Gender (being male) 6. Abusive parenting - Correlation between media violence and aggression is huge compared to other correlations.  The evidence for these links is as strong as that for contribution of any other studied contributor to community violence. The task of psychologists is no longer to demonstrate an effect, but to tease out its complexities and develop processes of amelioration and remediation. RESEARCH STREAM 2: UNDERLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL/NEURO PROCESSES BIOLOGY AND BRAIN  Several imaging teams examining this  John Murray et al provided these interesting findings at Children and Media conference this march 12 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 BRAIN-MAPPING STUDY  Pilot fMRI study of 8 children aged 8-12  Compared activations of violent and non-violent TV Three video clips tested  Subjects shown 2-3 minute clips of 3 different types of video; violent, non-violent, and fixation FINDINGS: IMPULSE CONTROL  Reduced involvement of prefrontal cortex  Consistently replicated  This suggests that when experiencing violent media, the part of the brain that thinks through consequences and inhibits aggressive impulses is ‘turned down’ LIMBIC SYSTEM  Activation of the limbic system starting at the amygdala  Increase in emotional responses  Activation of the ‘old parts’ of the brain that respond to threat and prepare us for action, such as fight or flight  Responses may be more automatic, less thought through MEMORY STORAGE  Activation In posterior cingulate  According to Murray, images of violence seem to be stored in this part of the brain  Patter is similar to that found for the storage of trauma memories In PTSD patients.  Such memories are easily recalled and may intrude on thoughts. Note: They found right hemisphere of the brain was far more active than the left EMOTION PROCESSING  Significantly more activation in right hemisphere of brain  Significant emotional processing of seem screen violence emotions  Especially negative emotions (these include anger, jealousy, sadness etc) OTHER FINDINGS: DESENSITISATION Gentile et al (2016) 13 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Tested habitual players of violent versus non-violent games  Nonviolent gamers had an increase in emotional response regions when playing the violent game (same finding as Murray)  Violent gamers demonstrated a different pattern: An active suppression of these same regions. BRAIN IMAGING FINDINGS OVERALL fMRI and EEG/MEG studies consistently show that while engaging with violent media there is:  Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex  Reduction in key executive functions including attention to tasks  Reduction in inhibitory control  More activity in centres that produce unconsidered action such as fight or flight  Desensitisation to the suffering of others PSYCHOLOGICAL ACQUISITON  Associative learning: pairing of aggressive behaviour with multiple cues  Aggression rewarded and not punished  Imitation - Mirror neurons - Identify with and copy aggressive characters, esp if attractive, heroic, rewarded, high status etc  More aggressive-related concepts and scripts for behaviour in neural network  Desensitisation PSYCHOLOGICAL REMEDIATION Waite et al (1992)  maximum security forensic hospital  Measured aggression in 222 patients for 33 weeks (not guilty by insanity, civil patients with severe behavioural problems, inmates with personality disintegration)  Removed MTV  Measured aggression after 22 weeks  Significant reduction in aggression after MTV removal Against objects (51.7%), against others (47.5%), verbal aggression (32.4%), against self (5.5%) WEEK 5: INTERNET PORNOGRAPHY AND CULTIBATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 14 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 PASSION FOR PORN According to the Pornhub year in review (2019)  In 2019 there were over 42 Billion visits to Pornhub, which means there was an average of 115 million visits per day.  Over 39 billion searches performed, which is 8.7 billion more searches than 2018  Record amount of video uploads, over 6.83 million new videos were uploaded to Pornhub – growing amateur production  1.36 million new hours of content – 169 years to watch it all  Interactive: 203 million votes, 11.5 million comments  Community: 70 million messages were sent between Pornhub users WHAT IS DRIVING THIS PASSION Several concurrent technological developments in the late 1980s made this possible 1. Video Graphics Array (VGA) made it possible for images, and specifically digital photographic images, to be rendered on the average personal computer screen 2. Hard drives made possible the storage of personal files and programs on a user’s personal computer 3. Once computers were networked, it was possible to distribute or trade pornographic materials, either as commerce or via peer-to-peer.  Price et al. (2015) examined data collected over a forty-year period - changes in attitudes to pornography and its consumption among U.S. young adults: consumption has been increasing across birth generations, particularly beginning in the 1980s cohort.  Technology - cheaper and easier to manufacture sexually explicit material and platforms to deliver material.  Easy access to the multitude of free pornographic images  Cooper (1998) has described these factors as the ‘Triple-A Engine’, namely; accessibility (i.e., millions of sites available 24/7), affordability (i.e., competition keeps prices low or free), and anonymity (i.e., people perceive their communications to be anonymous).  Changed from the clandestine habit of a few to almost normative pastime for many  Top 20 countries make up 29% of pornhub’s traffic. Australia is #9  Watched mostly on phones.  From 2019-2020 phones were used 4.7% more IMPACT OF COVID  Covid and lockdowns: Increases in social isolation, loneliness and stress (Wang et al., 2020)  A sharp increase in porn searches was seen in nations where covid was widespread  Aside from the sexual arousal and enhancement, coping, emotional avoidance and boredom are linked with greater use of pornography  Australia during covid: Big spike when lockdowns were imposed. PORNIFIED CULTURE OF VIOLENCE  Internet pornography can be an avenue to explore sexuality  However, it often depicts behaviours that many adults do not perceive as mainstream, nor consider enjoyable, and/or are high risk in terms of sexual health. E.g. Only 2-3% of heterosexual encounters involve condom use  Public health concern – effect on sexual socialization of young people by influencing their understanding of which sexual behaviours and attitudes are normative, acceptable and rewarding 15 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Positive correlation demonstrated between perceived realism of IP and degree of influence on an individual’s sexual development  Heterosexual men’s interest and engagement in dominant behaviours: both interest in watching and more frequent consumption of IP associated with men’s desire to engage in or having already engaged in behaviours, such as hair pulling, slapping, choking, and verbal abuse. IP AND VIOLENCE LINK  Sexual objectification is the instrumentalization or division of a woman's body, body parts, or sexual functions from her personhood (Fredrickson and Roberts,1997)  Prioritising of female genitalia in IP, often to exclusion of female actor’s face (Fritz & Paul, 2017). Exemplified by particular sexual acts that suggest a women is simply an instrumental sexual object.  IP also depicts women as entities whose primary function is male sexual gratification  Men are often depicted as socially powerful and physically violent = reinforces assumptions about gendered sexual behaviour (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Wood, 1997).  Women are often passive and coerced or “tricked” into sexual acts  Whether pornography consumption is a reliable correlate of sexually aggressive behaviour continues to be debated. Meta‐analysis (Wright, Tokunga, Kraus, 2015) on pornography consumption and actual acts of sexual aggression based on general population studies - Analysed 22 studies from 7 different countries - Consumption was associated with sexual aggression in the US and internationally, among both males and females - Seen in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies - Associations were stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression, although both were significant. THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS  Cognitive: Priming Theory: (Berkowitz, 1984, 1990, 1993) – Violent media activates or ‘primes’ other aggressive thoughts, evaluations, and behaviours such - greater willingness to use violence in interpersonal situations.  Social learning theory: young children imitate almost any specific behaviours they see, including aggressive acts seen in media (Bandura, 1977) Bobo doll experiments  Social/Learning & Behaviour: Connection between observation and behaviour acquired through three social-cognitive structures (Bushman & Huesmann, 2001) 1. Schemas about the hostile world 2. Scripts for solving social problems that focus on aggression 3. Normative beliefs that aggression is acceptable PSYCHOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS 16 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 HOW IP GUIDES SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR  Substantial theory explains processes through which exposure to media violence can cause short & long-term increases in aggression and also contribute to violent behaviour  Schema: describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organises categories of information and the relationships among them.  Cognitive: Gender Schema theory (Bem 1981) – explains the development and consequences of sex typing/how children acquire sex-defined characteristics. During adolescence, understanding of socially dominant definitions of male and female roles is extended and refined.  Physical maturing and socio-cultural context defines how to evaluate and handle these changes and prompts development of social and sexual selves in ways that are congruent with socially prevailing gender roles.  Sexual Script theory (Learning & Behaviour): 3 components to understanding media effects on behaviour: the acquisition of behavioural scripts, their activation and their application  Acquisition effect occurs when an observer learns a new behavioural script, of which he or she was not previously aware (Wright, 2011a).  Activation of a script occurs when media exposure provides a cue for retrieval: - Variety of IP provides the opportunity to acquire new sexual scripts and to abstract higher order scripts (Huesmann, 1986) to form general rules, such as notions of female desire and malleability of consent portrayed in IP. - Activation can occur with stimuli other than the original media source of the script, such as via sexual arousal – applied in this context CRITICS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK: VOCAL DISAGREEMENT  Personality: Viewers' pre-existing level of aggression draws them to violent media rather than use promoting aggressive behaviour (Elson & Ferguson, 2014). This effect is found BUT longitudinal studies, statistical modelling and experiments all show causal effects as well.  Social violence is falling but violent media use is increasing, so there can be no connection: This argument seems to make sense at face value, but has several flaws: - Nearly all the research is about everyday aggression, not the much more severe category of acts of violence. - Moderate aggression and violence are always multifactorial, so it is impossible to ascertain accurately just what contribution a single factor makes - The multifactorial nature of societal violence means that some contributing factors can be increasing whilst others are decreasing regardless of the overall trend  Some critics suggest the GAM theory does not adequately allow for individual differences due to biology/personality.But detailed applications of the GAM clearly factor in these and many other influences  Some critics have also questioned the validity and relevance of social cognitive theories - odd approach given their huge evidence base  Critics also suggest that the small effect sizes found are not meaningful. 17 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Recent theorists have noted that many smaller psychological effects are very important, as are many very small effects found in medicine.  Criticisms have been made of the validity of laboratory measures of aggression, and note an issue with the external validity of eliciting aggressiveness in a lab: - Some lab measures of aggression are better than others but a number are well validated, including currently used paradigms such as the CRTT - All lab studies have external validity issues, the key is replication across multiple study types. This triangulation of evidence is demonstrated in media violence research - effects in lab experiments, cross-sectional correlational studies, longitudinal studies over time, observational studies and brain imaging studies. IP AND YOUNG PEOPLE  Australian teenagers and young adults are high users of the Internet with 83% of teens and 90% of 18–24-year-olds going online three or more times daily - ample opportunities for both unintentional and intentional exposure to IP.  Most of the free mainstream IP sites have NO barriers to entry for under 18s, including Pornhub, one of the most popular free sites. EXPOSURE OF CHILDREN TO IP  Prevalence rates of intentional exposure - 7% of 10-17-year-olds in a U.S. study to 59% in a more recent study of Taiwanese 10-12th-grade students.  Prevalence rates for unintentional exposure of children to IP - 19% amongst 10- to 12-year-olds in the U.S to 60% among Australian girls and 84% among Australian boys aged 16 to 17  McKee (2010) - percentage of Australians viewing pornography before 16 increased from 37% in the 1950s to 79% in the early 2000’s  U.S. study found average first exposure age was 11 years, with 100% of 15- year-old males and 80% of 15-year-old females reporting they had been exposed to violent, degrading IP  UK survey by the National Centre for Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) of more than 1,000 children (11-16 years) found that at least half had been exposed to IP. Almost all (94%) seen IP by age 14. 3 - 9% of 13-14 year olds and 42% of 15-16 year olds said IP had given them “ideas about the type of sex to try out”.  In an Australian study by Lim et al. (2017) in a sample of Victorians aged 15-29 years, the authors reported that: - 87% of participants reported ever viewing pornography - Male participants reported ever viewing pornography - Median age at first exposure to IP was 13 years for males and 16 years for females. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH Bernstein (2017)  Most respondents (41.3%) recalled their first exposure to IP as occurring between 12 and 14 years of age, but just under a quarter (24.7%) exposed between 9 and 11 years.  Notably, 4.4% of respondents recalled their first exposure as occurring between 6 and 8 years and 1.3% recalled seeing IP even younger  Most respondents (59.4%) said first exposure to IP was deliberate but more than a third (39%) exposed accidentally.  6.8% stated their first exposure had occurred at school WHY IT MATTERS 18 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Internationally, longitudinal research found that early and more frequent exposure to pornography are both associated with initiation of sexual behaviours at younger age amongst adolescents  Young people report using IP as a form of sexual education and incorporating pornography- inspired practices into their real life sexual experiences  Correlation noted between poor mental health and frequent use of pornography–Swedish study found nearly 20% of daily pornography users had depressive symptoms, significantly more than infrequent users (12.6%)  Increased self-objectification and body surveillance related to use of IP for both young males & females (insecurity of bodies)  Exposure to violence against women in media linked with: reduced sympathy for female victims of violence, increased rape myth acceptance, increased attitudes in support of sexual violence, more stereotypical gender role attitudes, increased negative attitudes toward women, and increased aggression toward women  Portrayal of sexual violence in these media further augments negative effects  Growing evidence base on preventing violence against women and children by addressing underlying determinants  messages mainstream IP generates about gender, equality and (hetero)sexuality, how these messages might shape the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of children and young people in forming respectful, equitable romantic/sexual/intimate relationships ATTEMPTS TO COUNTER THE PARADIGM How do we address this issue?  Need to treat young people as agentic rather than passive – educate them to become critical of content & decode messages  APS 2016 submission recommendations included no pornography for under 12’s (requires schools and parents) & quality, inclusive sex education to help young people to critique what they see in IP, sex health education for parents on conversation initiation, training for psychologists, youth workers etc.  Crabbe and Corlett: Reality and Risk project (2016) - promote critical thinking about IP and its messages about women, men, sex. - Resources include Its Time we Talked and In the PictureMost education is in secondary school- Catching on Early: Sexuality education for Victorian primary schools except  Most education is in secondary school  Catching on early: sexuality education for primary schools exception IP LITERACY  Currently NO universally taught IP education programs in Australian schools – instead schools that choose to address this do so with limited presentations/advice by outside agencies/experts on digital safety.  Young people and teachers agree schools should teach about the risks of IP viewing. Most commonly chosen method was peer-led discussions among 16- to 18-year-olds, followed by teacher-led discussions and small group work Feedback main points  A school based education workshop is a good way to learn about IP  The education workshop increased my understanding of the potential messages contained in IP  The education workshop increased my understanding of how IP might impact personal relationships  The education workshop increased my understanding on the potential social consequences (how it can impact society more broadly) of IP. 19 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 WEEK 6: PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERACY PSYU3399: CAPSTONE UNIT SHOULD 1. Make students aware of graduate capabilities they have developed 2. Consolidate and synthesise discipline specific knowledge and skills learned in different units in psychology 3. Reflect on how undergraduate learning might be used to explain everyday behaviour 4. Use 1 - 3 above to facilitate employability EMPLOYABILITY  About 25% of psychology graduates go on to further education or professional training in psychology  Many work in psychology related fields: mental health workers, counsellors, case- workers, welfare workers, social services  Others work in the knowledge economy  Your psychology degree and getting a job.  Your placement experience should be helpful in terms of: - Networks - Employability SELECTION CRITERIA Most important Least important 1. Interpersonal and communication skills 1. Arrogance 2. Cultural alignment/values fit 2. Poor oral communication 3. Emotional intelligence 3. Poor communication skills 4. Reasoning and problem solving 4. Poor cultural fit 5. Academic results 5. Unwillingness to learn 6. Work experience 6. Lack of passion SCIENTIFIC LITERACY Central: The capacity to apply your skills to everyday life and the workplace Knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for: - Personal decision making - Participation in civic and cultural affairs - Economic productivity. - Ability to describe, explain and predict natural phenomena - Read, with understanding articles about science - Engage in social conversation about the validity of conclusions - Identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions and express positions that are scientifically and technologically informed - Evaluate the quality of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it - The capacity to pose and evaluate arguments. PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERACY Concept coined by Borneau (1990) who asked 250 authors of current textbooks to respond to a questionnaire where they rated, on a five point Likert scale, how important it was that psychology 20 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 majors should be able to “make knowledgeable statements about this term” (e.g., hypothesis testing, long-term memory, ego, dependent variable, placebo effect)  Understanding the basic concepts and principles of psychology  Understanding scientific research practices  Having problem solving skills  Applying psychological principles to personal, social or organisational problems  Acting ethically  Thinking critically  Communicating well in different context  Having cultural competence and respecting diversity  Having self-awareness: being insightful and reflecting about your own behaviour and that of others. THINKING STYLES: ANALYTIC VS INTUITIVE The blue/black dress:  The striking individual differences in dress colour perception are due to individual differences in the interpretation of illumination cues to achieve colour constancy. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE TO REAL WORLD PROBLEMS  It’s not just about applying the phenomenon we see and learn, it needs to have an ethical and moral dimension. GENDER ROLE CONFORMITY Alcohol use:  Binge drinking, public drunkenness is judged more acceptable in young men by both men and women. “That's OK. He's a guy’.  Epidemiological data show a steady decline in all-causes mortality except alcohol related mortality: each 1 litre rise in per capita alcohol consumption is associated with overall mortality increase of 1.5%; in 15-29 years of age the increase is 12.5% ADAM GOODES Answers informed by psychological literacy might stress:  The significance on being called an ‘ape’ when part of a group widely treated as ‘sub-human’ for over two centuries;  Overt pride in indigenous heritage; celebration with an Indigenous dance, possibly as a response to a comment implying he is ‘sub-human’  This might in turn facilitate implicit and explicit prejudice and stereotyping  The role of in group-out group processes Crowd behaviour, conformity and contagion WHY IS PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERACY A DESIRED ATTTIBUTE?  The world has many problems (e.g., problems with the distribution of available food leading to hunger, pollution of water, war, crime, extinction of non-human species because of habitat loss, societal and individual consequences of consumption of legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco, societal and individual consequences of consumption of illegal drugs) as a consequence of human behaviour 21 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  The psychologically literate citizen can apply psychological principles to change maladaptive human behaviour at a personal, social or organisational level  Having problem solving skills and being able to communicate well in different contexts are two of top three attributes employers seek WEEK 7: PATHWAYS TO REGISTRATION MASTER OF PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (5+1)  Master of Professional Psychology provides the formal 5th year accredited university training of the “5+1” pathway  +1 is the 6th year - A year of supervised internship overseen by an approved PsyBA supervisor once the 5th year is completed and not covered by a university enrolment.  Generalist psychologists make up approximately 60% of total psychology workforce  Generalist psychologists are equipped to practice in a broad range of settings and are therefore highly valued in roles that require flexibility/breadth of experience, including managerial and other leadership roles  At end of 6th year, mandatory National Exam required for qualification to apply for General registration. 2 YEAR MASTER PROGRAM (6 YEAR STUDY +2 YEAR EXPERIENCE) Three main components:  Coursework (over 2 years)  Dissertation/thesis component – one or two written submissions aligned to a topic of interest relevant to your field of choice  Placements: We organise between 3-4 placements with the first in the MQ clinic located in the hearing hub. The remaining placements are typical of the type of work you will do upon graduation. MASTER OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY  Relatively small – highly trained profession 22 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 The Work: Assessment and Evidence Based Treatments to prevent, manage and treat mental health problems across the lifespan The Patients/Clients: Primarily mental health disorders including at-risk populations - includes specializations – e.g., palliative care; geriatrics, enhancing resiliency in disadvantaged youth etc. The Employers: Area Health Services, Hospitals, Schools (private); researcher/practitioner, private consultancies and private practice. 3 different placements including one in our Clinic. MASTER OF CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Only Clinical Neuropsychology program in NSW The Work: Assessment and treatment of cognitive and behavioural changes that result from brain damage; using psychological tests to determine the nature and degree of acquired brain dysfunction secondary to a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. The Patients/Clients: Adult and pediatric cases with various neurological injuries including traumatic brain injury, stroke, epilepsy, substance abuse, dementia, and psychiatric disorders. The Employers: Tertiary referral hospitals, Brain Injury Units, Psychiatric Hospitals, Medico-Legal Practices. 4 placements in total across ~18 months starting in the Clinic. Typical placements are Rehabilitation; Neurology & Neurosurgery; Paediatrics; Geriatrics; Psychiatry MASTER OF ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY This is the only accredited Organisational psychology program in NSW The Work: Applying psychology theories and methods to enhance workplace well-being and behaviour The Clients: Work organisations, government agencies, employers, leaders, employees The Roles: As specialists, consultants, and designers in such fields as recruitment/selection, psychometric assessment, talent management, learning & development, leadership, organisational development, change management, employee wellness, climate & culture, human factors, executive coaching. 4 placements in roles aligned to possible employment. GRADUATE CERTIFICATE/DIPLOMA OF BUSINESS PSYCHOLOGY Covering content similar to the Master of Organisational Psychology. This is not an accredited program. Admission criteria: Entry is competitive, but the minimum requirements include - Bachelors degree with 2 years full-time equivalent work experience at managerial or professional level OR Recent APAC accredited AQF level 8 qualification (Honours 1st or 2nd class) or recognised equivalent. ENTRY/SELECTION CRITERIA  APAC-approved 4th year study or equivalent in last 10 years.International students need to apply for equivalence of international qualifications through the Australian Psychological Society  Sound academic record – for highly competitive programs Honours 1st class or strong 2.1  Referee reports  Strong interpersonal skills  Capacity for independent/critical thinking  IELTS if relevant 23 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Life and other experience  Selection event performance HOW TO APPLY  Through UAC  Require: - UAC application submission - Two referees reports submitted through the Australian Psychology Postgraduate Reference System - same system for all Masters programs at MQ - Supplementaryformdetailingrelevantadditionalinformation–linksinUAC interface  Short-listed applicants invited to attend an selection event usually in late November. Attendance for domestic students is mandatory. Offers are usually made early – mid December WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO BE A PSYCHOLOGIST?  Social perceptiveness  Active listening  Speaking  Critical thinking WEEK 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS WHY JOIN A PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION?  Learning More than just knowledge - Keeps up to date at cutting edge - Advice when cases are tricky - Community of practice -  Friends  Professional standards and ethics - Often those who go astray (sexual misconduct, professional misconduct) are out of touch with their peers.  Public know where to find you  Public confidence in your ability  Represents the interests of the industry  Recognises and rewards excellence in the Profession  Often assist with accreditation requirements/CPD etc WHAT SORT OF ORGANISATIONS ARE THERE? Psychology  Australian Psychological Society (APS) - 9 colleges (e.g., clinical, counselling, clinical neuro) - Plus 2 divisions (Research, Education and Training and General Practice)  American Psychological Association (APA) - 54 divisions (e.g., media psychology and technology, Div. 42; Society for Personality and Social Psych. Div. 8) Counselling  Australian Counselling Association (ACA) 24 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 Over 9000 counsellors and psychotherapists - 4 levels of membership, need appropriate qualifications and experience at each level -  Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation Australia (PACFA) - 5 colleges (ATSI, Counselling, Psychotherapy, Relationships, Educators) - 2 interest groups Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation Australia (PACFA)  Strict membership guidelines regarding membership eligibility - Provisional members - Clinical members - Academic members - Affiliate members - Student members APS  Not the registration board  Is the peak body in Aus for registered psychologists  > 27,000 members  > 4,000 student members  9 colleges and 2 other divisions  46 interest groups - ATSI, schools, homelessness, environment, various faiths, relationships, sleep, sport etc  Over 200 branches APS STUDENT MEMBERS  Can join the APS for $55 (huge reduction in cost)  Can join any of the colleges for $16 if in an APAC accredited course like this one  Can join any of the two divisions  Can join any of the interest groups DIVISIONS  1st Division includes 9 colleges  2nd Division: Division of General Psychological Practice (DGPP)  DGPP was set up to give direct voice to registered members who do not belong to a Division 1 college or DPRET  3rd Division: Division of Psychological Research, Education and Training (DPRET)  DPRET is one of the three Divisions of the APS. DPRET was created in 2013 to give a voice to, and represent the interests of, APS members working in academia, research centres, training institutions, and secondary education. APS MEMBERSHIP Code of Ethics, Ethical Guidelines and Professional Resources.  New Student Subscribers receive a free copy of the APS Code of Ethics and Ethical Guidelines booklets when they join  Exclusive access to the Resource Finder; a powerful, member-only tool which brings together all the resources developed by the APS APS Matters 25 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Fortnightly email update is distributed to all members with links to APS member news and website updates  The APS promotes awards and prizes which span a range of specialist areas and geographical locations.  Numerous awards are dedicated to highlighting psychology's brightest students and allow them to showcase their work on a national stage. Book and magazine discounts  Student subscribers receive 35% discount on books in the Wiley catalogue.  This includes textbooks and reference books, as well as the For Dummies how-to rage, and many more. Brand discounts  Discounts on brands including Fitness First, Specsavers, Hoyts and Village Cinemas Proquest database  Membership grants free online access to ProQuest Psychology Journals and MEDLINE online literature databases  Students can research their career options by reviewing job and business opportunities that are advertised on PsychXchange  E-alerts should positions of interest arise Benefits for study  APS resources are helpful, evidence-based and easy to understand – which means they are a huge support for university assignments.  Resource Finder brings all of APS resources together in one place.  The APS online hub StudentHQ has lots of things psych students need to progress their career, including guidance on the different practice areas.  Webinars, conferences & online learning are high quality and heavily discounted for students. WEEK 10: NATIONAL PRACTICE STANDARDS & PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR IN PSYCH NATIONAL PRACTICE STANDARDS For psychologists, the discipline-specific documents that may apply include the Australian Psychological Society’s  Code of ethics  Ethical and practice guidelines and procedures  More broadly there are other standards that apply to psychologists, including the National Practice Standards for the Mental Health Workforce, the Mental Health Act and other relevant laws. STANDARD 1: RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES, SAFETY AND PRIVACY  Privacy, dignity and confidentiality are maintained, and safety is actively promoted. 26 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Mental health practitioners implement legislation, regulations, standards, codes and policies relevant to their role in a way that supports people affected by mental health problems and/or mental illness, as well as their families and carers. STANDARD 2: WORKING WITH PEOPLE, FAMILIES AND CARERS IN RECOVERY- FOCUSED WAY  In working with people and their families and support networks, mental health practitioners support people to become decision-makers in their own care, implementing the principles of recovery-oriented mental health practice.  Advocate for people to make decisions themselves. STANDARD 3: MEETING DIVERSE NEEDS  The social, cultural, linguistic, spiritual and gender diversity of people, families and carers are actively and respectfully responded to by mental health practitioners, incorporating those differences into their practice. STANDARD 4: WORKING WITH ABOROGINAL AND TORREST STRAIT ISLANDERS, FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES  By working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, families and communities, mental health practitioners actively and respectfully reduce barriers to access, provide culturally secure systems of care, and improve social and emotional wellbeing. STANDARD 5: ACCESS  Mental health practitioners facilitate timely access to services and provide a high standard of evidence-based assessment that meets the needs of people and their families or carers. STANDARD 6: INDIVIDUAL PLANNING  To meet the needs, goals and aspirations of people and their families and carers, mental health practitioners facilitate access to and plan quality, evidence-based, values-based health and social care interventions. STANDARD 7: TREATMENT AND SUPPORT  To meet the needs, goals and aspirations of people and their families and carers, mental health practitioners deliver quality, evidence-informed health and social interventions. STANDARD 8: TRANSITIONS IN CARE  On exit from a service or transfer of care, people are actively supported by mental health practitioners through a timely, relevant and structured handover, in order to maximise optimal outcomes and promote wellness. STANDARD 9: INTEGRATION AND PARTNERSHIP  People and their families and carers are recognised by mental health practitioners as being part of a wider community, and mental health services are viewed as one element in a wider service network.  Practitioners support the provision of coordinated and integrated care across programs, sites and services. 27 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 STANDARD 10: QUALITY IMPROVEMENT  In collaboration with people with lived experience, families and team members, mental health practitioners take active steps to improve services and mental health practices using quality improvement frameworks. STANDARD 11: COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT  A connection and rapport with people lived experience and colleagues is established by mental health practitioners to build and support effective therapeutic and professional relationships  Practitioners maintain a high standard of documentation and use information systems and evaluation to ensure data collection meets clinical, service delivery, monitoring and evaluation needs. STANDARD 12: HEALTH PROMOTION AND PREVENTION  Mental health promotion is an integral part of all mental health work.  Mental health practitioners use mental health promotion and primary prevention principles, and seek to build resilience in communities, groups and individuals, and prevent or reduce the impact of mental illness. STANDARD 13: ETHICAL PRACTICE AND PROGESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES  The provision of treatment and care is accountable to people, families and carers, within the boundaries prescribed by national, professional, legal and local codes of conduct and practice.  Mental health practitioners recognise the rights of people, carers and families, acknowledging power differentials and minimising them whenever possible.  Practitioners take responsibility for maintaining and extending their professional knowledge and skills, including contributing to the learning of others. APS CODE OF ETHICS  Adopted September 2007 and no adopted by Psychology board of Australia  Used in conjunction with APS ethical guidelines document  Belonging to APS or becoming a registered psychologist commits and binds that person to the code DEFINITIONS Client means a party or parties to a psychological service involving  teaching, supervision, research, and professional practice in psychology.  Clients may be individuals, couples, dyads, families, groups of people,  organisations, communities, facilitators, sponsors, or those commissioning  or paying for the professional activity. Conduct means any act or omission by psychologists:  That others may reasonable consider to be a psychological service  Outside their practice of psychology which casts doubt on their competence and ability to practice as psychologists  Outside their practice of psychology which harms public trust in the discipline or the profession of psychology  In their capacity as Members of the society; 28 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  As applicable in the circumstances Multiple relationships occur when a psychologist, rendering a psychological service to a client, also is or has been: a) in a non-professional relationship, with the same client; b) in a different professional relationship with the same client; c) in a non-professional relationship with an associated party; or d) a recipient of a service provided by the same client. Psychological Service means any service provided by a psychologist to a client including but not limited to  Professional activities  Psychological activities  Professional practice  Teaching/Supervision  Research GENERAL PRINCIPLE A: RESPECT FOR THE RIGHTS & DIGNITY OF PEOPLE & PEOPLES  Psychologists regard people as intrinsically valuable and respect their rights, including the right to autonomy and justice.  Psychologists engage in conduct which promotes equity and the protection of people’s human rights, legal rights, and moral rights.  They respect the dignity of all people and peoples. A1 – Justice: Psychologists should not engage in any form of discrimination; A2 – Respect: For clients: no behaviours that could be  Perceived as coercive or demeaning  Respects legal & moral rights of others  Toward other colleagues: respectful, professional, confidential, respect proprietary rights. A3 – Informed Consent  Fully inform clients regarding psychological services they intend to provide  Use plain language  Provides practical guidelines for how a psychologist can ensure consent is informed  Guidelines for when clients do not have the capacity to consent A4 – Privacy  No undue invasion of privacy  Collect only relevant information  No personal information from supervisees or trainees (some exceptions) A5 – Confidentiality  Take into account legal and organisational requirements  Psychologists safeguard the confidentiality of information obtained during their provision of psychological services.  Considering their legal and organisational requirements, psychologists: a. make provisions for maintaining confidentiality in the collection, recording, accessing, storage, dissemination, and disposal of information; and  Considering their legal and organisational requirements, psychologists: 29 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 b. Take reasonable steps to protect the confidentiality of information after they leave a specific work setting, or cease to provide psychological services. A 5.2 Disclosure  With consent of client  When legally obliged  Immediate, specified risk of harm to an identifiable person or persons that can ONLY be averted by disclosure  When consulting colleagues or in professional supervision or training BUT MUST conceal identity of client or get consent. Recipients of knowledge must agree to confidentiality  Psychologists inform clients at the outset of the professional relationship, and as regularly thereafter as is reasonably necessary, of the: a. limits to confidentiality; and b. foreseeable uses of the information generated in the course of the relationship. When a standard of this Code allows psychologists to disclose information obtained in the course of the provision of psychological services, they disclose only that information which is necessary to achieve the purpose of the disclosure, and then only to people required to have that information. A6 – Release of Information to Clients  Psychologists, with consideration of legislative exceptions and their organisational requirements, do not refuse any reasonable request from clients, or former clients, to access client information, for which the psychologists have professional responsibility. A7 – Collection of client information from associated parties  Consent of client or their legal representative  Psychologists who work with clients whose capacity to give informed consent is, or may be, impaired or limited, obtain the informed consent of people with legal authority to act on behalf of the client, and attempt to obtain the client’s consent as far as practically possible.  Guidelines for how to prepare for and proceed with information collection. GENERAL PRINCIPLE B: PROPRIETY B.1 – Competence B1.1  Psychologists bring and maintain appropriate skills and learning to their areas of professional practice B 1.2  Practice within boundaries of professional competence and jurisdiction of practice B 1.3  Professional supervision and consultation B1.4  Self-monitor professional functioning B.2 – Record keeping  Adequate records  Keep for 7 years  For clients under 18 keep records till they are 25  Clients and former clients have the right to amend inaccurate information in their records. B.3 – Professional responsibility  Psychologists provide psychological services in a responsible manner. Having regard to the nature of the psychological services they are providing, psychologists: a. act with the care and skill expected of a competent psychologist; 30 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 b. take responsibility for the reasonably foreseeable consequences of their conduct; c. take reasonable steps to prevent harm occurring as a result of their conduct; d. provide a psychological service only for the period when those services are necessary to the client; e. are personally responsible for the professional decisions they make; B.4 – Provision of psychological services at the request of a third party  Psychologists who agree to provide psychological services to an individual, group of people, system, community or organisation at the request of a third party, at the outset explain to all parties concerned: a) the nature of the relationship with each of them; b) the psychologist’s role (such as, but not limited to, case manager, consultant, counsellor, expert witness, facilitator, forensic assessor, supervisor, teacher/educator, therapist); c) the probable uses of the information obtained; d) the limits to confidentiality; and e) the financial arrangements relating to the provision of the service where relevant. B.5 – Provision of psychological services to multiple clients a) Explain to each client the limits to confidentiality in advance; b) give clients an opportunity to consider the limitations of the situation; c) obtain clients’ explicit acceptance of these limitations; and d) ensure as far as possible, that no client is coerced to accept these limitations. B.6 – Delegation of professional tasks  Delegates must have read code  Ensure no multiple relationships between delegates and clients  Assess risk of harm to clients bt delegation  Delegate must be competent  Oversee delegates to ensure that they  perform tasks competently. B.7 – Use of Interpreters B.8 – Collaborating with others for the benefit of clients  Cooperate with other professionals where appropriate and necessary to provide effectual service to clients  Offer second opinions  B.9 Accepting clients of other professionals  B.10 Suspension of psychological services B.11 – Termination of Psychological Services  Client no longer benefiting from services  Well-being of client is paramount  Reasonable arrangements for the continuity of service provision when no longer able to deliver the psychological service  When client needs greater expertise than you can provide B.12 – Conflicting demands between organisation and code  Guidelines for resolution of this situation B.13 – Psychological Assessment  Use quality instruments/measures 31 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803  Understand and make clear to clients the limitations of the measures/techniques  Score and report accurately  Do not compromise tests or make public B.14 – Research  Comply with NH&MRC, ARC, Universities  Australia research codes, statements, guidelines and other directives;  Make data available on request;  Report data accurately;  State previous publication of any data clearly GENERAL PRINCIPLE C: INTEGRITY C.1 – Reputable behaviour  Don’t bring self into disrepute  Don’t bring profession into disrepute C.2 – Communication  Honesty  Correct any misrepresentations/misconceptions  Guidelines for advertising  Accurately portray professional qualification C.3 – Conflict of interest  Avoid multiple relationships that impair professional practice, could harm clients or lead to their exploitation;  Seek advice from senior psychologist if unsure  If multiple relationships are unavoidable, carefully follow all informed consent guidelines at A.3  Declare to clients any vested interests in the psychological services they deliver C.4 – Non-exploitation C.4.1. Psychologists do not exploit people with whom they have or had a professional relationship. C.4.2. Psychologists do not exploit their relationships with their assistants, employees, colleagues or supervisees. Psychologists: a. do not engage in sexual activity with a client or anybody who is closely related to one of their clients; b. do not engage in sexual activity with a former client, or anybody who is closely related to one of their former clients, within two years after terminating the professional relationship with the former client; c. who wish to engage in sexual activity with former clients after a period of two years from the termination of the service, first explore with a senior psychologist the possibility that the former client may be vulnerable and at risk of exploitation, and encourage the former client to seek independent counselling on the matter; and d. do not accept as a client a person with whom they have engaged in sexual activity. e. Sexual Contact with Clients Probably the most damaging boundary violation Is never permissible in the client’s life time for psychotherapists 32 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 As with APS may be permissible 2 years after the termination of treatment by some other standards (e.g., the American Psychological Association etc.) Clients who are having sexual relations with their counsellor often feel/experience: - Ambivalence toward their counsellor - Guilt - Isolated - Empty - Have thought disturbances, disturbances to cognitive functions - Identity disturbances - Loss of trust - Sexual confusion - Unstable mood - Suppressed rage - Are at greatly increased suicide risk.  Typically, a counsellor who has a sexual boundary violation with a client will be: - Male and Middle aged - Professionally isolated - Suffering from personal distress or having a ‘mid-life crisis’ - Having marital problems - Will typically expose / self-disclose their own problems to younger, female clients, making themselves vulnerable and gaining the sympathy of the client. C.5 – Authorship  Discuss early  Assigned according to contribution  Student’s rights  Consent of contributors C.6 – Financial Arrangements  Honest  Clear  Safeguard the best interests of, and are clearly understood, by all parties  Avoid financial arrangements which may adversely influence the psychological services provided  No money charged for referrals Ethics investigations and concerns  Cooperate with any investigations  If you suspect a colleague of misconduct a. Where appropriate, draw the attention of the psychologist whose conduct is in question directly, or indirectly through a senior psychologist, to the actions that are thought to be in breach of the Code and cite the section of the Code which may have been breached b. Encourage people directly affected by such behaviour to report the conduct to a relevant regulatory body or the Ethics Committee of the Society; or c. Report the conduct to a relevant regulatory body or the Ethics Committee of the Society. Psychologists do not lodge, or endorse the lodging, of trivial, vexatious or unsubstantiated ethical complaints against colleagues. WEEK 11: LEGISLATIONS 33 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 THE NSW MENTAL HEALTH ACT  The 2007 Act is the law that governs the care and treatment of people with a mental illness. Replaced 1990 Act; several amendments up to 2017 Key principles include: - People are entitled to the best care and treatment, the least restriction of their freedom, and the least interference with their rights and dignity - Treatment is to ensure the proper protection of patients as well as the public - The adverse effects of mental illness on family life are minimised TO WHOM DOES THE ACT APPLY? The act makes provision for the care of patients who: 1. Are admitted to a mental health facility voluntarily (called voluntary patients); 2. Are admitted to or detained in a mental health facility against their wishes (called involuntary patients); 3. Are required to receive treatment in thecommunity. The Mental Health (Forensic Procedures) Act 1990, as well as the Mental Health Act 2007, provide for the care of patients who have committed a criminal offence and are mentally ill. These patients may be either forensic or correctional patients. INFORMAL ADMISSION  Involves the hospitalization of mental health patients who agree to or ask for admission to hospital. That is, admission is voluntary.  These are called ‘Informal patients’  Involves informed consent Informed Consent  Occurs where the consumer provides permission for a specific treatment to occur. The person must also be deemed well enough to be able to give informed consent. FORMAL (INVOLUNTARY) ADMISSION Formal (involuntary) admission A person is admitted to or detained in hospital, or forced to accept treatment against their wishes There are several categories: - Involuntary patient. admitted to or detained in hospital against their wishes, generally on the advice of a certified Medical/Mental Health Practitioner - Forensic patient: has committed an offence but is unfit to be tried or found not guilty due to mental illness, and has been ordered to be detained in a correctional/mental health/other facility, or released into the community subject to conditions - Community Treatment Order (CTO):A CTO is a legal order made by the Mental Health Review Tribunal, a magistrate or a suitably qualified person in a hospital or community based service. A CTO is valid for 12 months. It sets out the terms under which a person must accept medication, therapy, rehabilitation or other services. Is generally ordered when: a. the person is currently mentally ill, or b. the person is not currently mentally ill, but is judged by a suitably qualified practitioner to be likely to become mentally ill within 3 months, and c. a CTO is judged to be the least restrictive alternative for treatment. - 34 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 Formal (Involuntary) admission can only be carried out if the following criteria are met: 1. A Mentally Ill Person: Has a continuing (deteriorating) mental illness AND is at risk of serious harm to self or others Definition: condition that seriously impairs, either temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person and is characterized by the presence of any one or more of the following symptoms or signs:  Delusions  Hallucinations  Serious disorder of thought form  Severe disturbance of mood  Sustained or repeated irrational behaviour indicating that the person is having delusions or hallucinations. - 2. A Mentally Disordered Person: Displaying irrational behaviour AND significant physical risk to self and others, AND no other care of a less restrictive kind is available EXCLUSIONS A person cannot be regarded as mentally ill or disordered for the purpose of the ACT merely because of the presence or lack of:  Religious beliefs or philosophy  Sexual preference/orientation  Past or current involvement in sexual promiscuity, immoral or legal conduct  Or because person has developmental disability, or takes drugs  Engages in anti-social behaviour FORMAL ADMISSION Ways that a person may be formally admitted, under the Mental Health Act:  Scheduling by medical practitioners. This is the most common pathway to formal admission. The practitioner fills out Schedule 1 of the Mental health act (2007) - Valid for 5 days if mentally ill, 1 day of mentally disordered - In country areas, experienced mental health practitioners can be accredited to perform this task  Admission by police of by ambulance officers. This is particularly salient for Forensic Patients or where the person is at risk of self-harm or other-harm. Sometimes occurs during criminal investigations;  Admission at the request of a designated carer, principal carer, relative or friend. - Occurs ONLY in remote areas - Only by written request to the medical superintendent of the hospital  Admission by Order of the Court occurs when a person appears before a magistrate and is judged mentally ill;  Admission following an order by a magistrate for a medical examination. In this instance the medical practitioner would fill out the relevant Schedule. Confidentiality under the Act Generally, means that information about a patient is not given to people outside the service agency without the patient’s permission STANDARDISED PROCESS OF FORMALLY DETAINED 35 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 Mentally disordered person Examined within 12 hours of admission; 2nd examination;  Mental Health Inquiry by Tribunal ASAP after 2nd examination;  Can be detained for up to 3 days;  Must be examined every 24 hours by an authorised person;  Must be discharged if no longer mentally disordered. Mentally ill person Examined within 12 hours of admission; 2nd Examination; Mental Health Inquiry by Tribunal ASAP after 2nd examination; Tribunal can recommend Involuntary Admission for up to 3 months, or a Community Treatment Order for up to 12 months; If the consumer is still considered mentally ill after this period, must be reviewed by Tribunal, who can make further orders for 3 and 12 months respectively. Must be seen by Tribunal in a Mental Health Inquiry Informal Must be legally represented before the Tribunal unless the consumer requests otherwise Must be medicated at the minimum practicable level until seen by the Tribunal Must appear before the Tribunal in street clothes; can shave or have makeup. REVISIONS TO THE 2007 ACT The later revisions to the 2007 Act are fairly small. Craze (2017) summarises these as: Increased emphasis on personal recovery Increased emphasis on obtaining consent Increased emphasis on active involvement of the person’s family and carers Requirement to consider information from a range of people Strengthened focus on voluntary care and treatment including a Statement of Rights MANDATORY REPORTING: CHILD SAFETY IN NSW It is mandatory to make a report if you know of a child 0 to 15 years who is at risk of significant harm Not mandatory for unborn children or children 16 or 17 but these are under Dept Communities & Justice jurisdiction (>18 not) This is a NSW (not Federal law) Report to NSW Child Protection Helpline and Child Wellbeing Units (CWU). Use the Mandatory Reporter Guide decision making tool CWU can help where harm not ‘significant’ AHPRA PBA MANDATORY REPORTING Psychology Board Guidelines for mandatory notifications s.39 of the Health Practitioner Regulation National Law Act 2009 (National Law) Provides direction for - registered health practitioners, - employers of practitioners and 36 Downloaded by Sally Reiter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|13045803 - education providersabout the requirements for mandatory notifications under the National Law.  The aim of the notification requirements is to prevent the public from being placed at risk of harm.  The intention is that practitioners notify the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) if they believe that another practitioner has behaved in a way which presents a serious risk to the public. Mandatory Notifications The National Law does not require a student to make a mandatory notification However, students who are registered in a health profession under the National Law “should be familiar with these guidelines”. The threshold to be met to trigger a mandatory notification in relation to a practitioner is high. Making a mandatory notification is a serious step to prevent the public from being placed at risk of harm and should only be taken on sufficient grounds. Guidelines describe what sufficient grounds (including a ‘reasonable belief’) may be. The obligation to make a mandatory notification applies to the conduct or impairment of all practitioners, not just those within the practitioner’s own health profession. Notifications made to the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) AHPRA then refer it to the appropriate Board (e.g. Psychologists Board of Australia) What is Notifiable Conduct? S. 140 of the National Law defines ‘notifiable conduct’ as where a practitioner has  “Practised the practitioner’s profession while intoxicated by alcohol or drugs; or Engaged in sexual misconduct in connection with the practice of the practitioner’s profession; or Placed the public at risk of substantial harm in the practitioner’s practice of the profession because the practitioner has an impairment; or Placed the public at risk of harm because the practitioner has practised the profession in a way that constitutes a significant departure from accepted professional standards.” PRIVACY ACT 1988 –