Psychology Unit 4: Key Names, Motivation & Emotion - PDF

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 4 Key Names Konrad Lorenz Asserted that aggressive impules, are to a degree, innate Behaviors/traits are result of natural selection Abraham Maslow Humans motivated by conscious desire for PERSONAL GROWTH Maslow’s Hierachy of Needds Our most basic needs must...

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 4 Key Names Konrad Lorenz Asserted that aggressive impules, are to a degree, innate Behaviors/traits are result of natural selection Abraham Maslow Humans motivated by conscious desire for PERSONAL GROWTH Maslow’s Hierachy of Needds Our most basic needs must be met before we can be our best self Human behavior is more than mechanical/simply aimed towards drive reduction or survival Helping others achieve self-actualization Alfred Kinsey Considered the father of the study of hyman sexuality for confucting his studies in the 1940s Studies showed that there were wide variations in “normal” sexual practicies of individuals and that permarital sex was commonplace Specific case studies Kinsey Reports Kinsey Scale Sexuality as a spectrum Continum of homosexuality to heterosexuality Soloman Asch Conducted a famous study of conformity (line length) Confederate: experiment member posing as a subject of the study. Stanley Milgram Conducted a famous study of obedience (shock experiement) Milgram Experiment Mild Moderate Severe Real Subject vs. Confederate Got 2/3 to comply Philip Zimbardo Conducted the Stanford Prison Study Approved by the Intitutional Review Board  Results showed that the role someone plays greaty impacts their behavior Lucifer Effect: Absence of authority firgure to reinforce proper behavior of guards turned normal, nonsadistic individuals into aggressive tormentors. Hazel Markus Stability vs. Maluability of self-schema Central self-schema more stable Harold Kelly 1. Consensus If consensus in group increases, attribution external If consensus decreases, internal 2. Distinctiveness Increase = external Decrease = internal 3. Consistency Increases = internal Decrease = external Lee Ross Tendency to attribute behaviors of others to dispositional (internal) factors but ignore other explanations Motivation Motivation Guides Behavior Motivation: A need or desire that serves to energize behavior Beahvior is guided by both physiological and psychological needs/desires Motives: Hypothetical states that activate behavior 1. Biological - needs for survival Food, water, oxygen, sleep, pain avoidance 2. Stimulus - inborn needs for info/learning/stimulation 3. Learned - Behavior aimed towards psychological needs Acheivement, social approval, self-esteem, belonging Drive: A condition of arousal addociated with a need Type of motivation that is experienced as an aroused state of psychological/physiological tension caused by some need Primary - hunger/thirst/pain Aquired - Gain through experience; help to fufill primary drives 5 Major Theories of Motivation 1. Instinct/ Evolutionary Perspective (Natural Selection) Refers to inherited patterns of behavior that are unlearned Mostly common in species outside of humans Ex: Imprinting (Lorenz)  Instinct: Species-specific Many animals are naturally pre-wired to respond to situations a certain way PROS (+) Provides survival value NEGS (-) Doesn’t meet the complexity of most human behavior Kin selection: willingness to take risk for member of own spevies Reciprocity, altruism 2. Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull) Idea that physiological (biological) needs create tension states (drives) which motivates organism to satisfy the need Ex: Thirtiness creates tention state which motivates you to get water After you drink, the drive is reduced and you are closer to homeostasis PROS (+) Primary drives satisfied Homerostasis for bio needs CONS (-) What about secondary/aquired drives? 3. Incentives Theory A positive or negative ENVIORMENTAL (has to be external) stimulus that motivates behavior apart from the “need” to reduce drives Ex: Money, beating, ect Incentive: An object/person/situation that can satisfy a need externally PROS (+) Secondary drives satisfied (money, sensation seeking) CONS (-) Does not account for primary motives 4. Arousal Theory Based on 2 basic ideas: Individuals perform tasks at different levels of arousal (wakefulness/stress) Each individual seeks to find its optimal level of arousal to perform taks and to avoid boredom People with high levels of optimal arousal may be more susceptible to thrill seeking activities while those with low levels may seek out more relaxing quiet activities CONS (-) Does not explain complex social needs Yerkes-Dodson Principle of Arousal: (Graph forms an inverted-U) which states basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal Most need less level of arousal for difficult tasks (concentration) Most used levels of arousal for endurance tasks (running/swimming) Sexual Motivation Sexual Desire Adrogens Estrogens Gonads Testicles Ovaries Sexual Reponse Cycle  Following Kinsey’s studies, scientists looked to indentify typical sexual reactions among volunteers in the 1960s Masters and Johnson filmed and identified the sexual reponse cycle: refers to the four stages of sexual response 1. Excitment - Rasocongestion 2. Plateau [Mytonia (Muscle Tension)] 3. Orgasm (Mytonia) 4. Resolution - Refractory Period Influence of Masters and Johnson Study 1. Probably the most cited study in all human sexuality courses and paved way for future scientific study of sex 2. Ideas have been applied to help treat sexual dysfunctions Experiements/Lab results 3. Exposed many sexual myths Hormones and Sexual Behavior Certain hormones help activate sexual fertility, putting animals in “heat” (reproductive viability Sex drives increases, breasts swell, lips swell Estrogen Females become sexually receptive when estrogen peaks during ovulation - egg released Testosterone Levels also affect sex drive in both males and females Hypothalamus Controls the pituitary gland Growth hormone Puberty Menarch (First Period) Hormones are monitered in the hypothalamus Adolescent Sexuality About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex- rates are higher in Western Eurpoe but lower in Arab or Asian countries Only About 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms Ignorance Guilt around sex No communication Alcohol Use Mass Media norms of unprotected promiscuity Sexual Orientation Sexual Orientation An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own gender (homosexual orientation) or the other gender (heterosexual orienation) Homosexuality 3-4% of population Recognize around 20 years old Exposure to hormones during pregnancy b/w 2nd-5th month Genetics: yes, according to twin studies Biological differences in the hypothalamus Heterosexual males have larger cell clusters than homosexual males  NOT a result of: Parenting Hatred of other gender Hormones (currently in blood) Molestation The Brain Simon Levay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men Howver the cluster could be sociall developed or some other biological factor Psychologists have argued that sexually explicit materials can have negative effects Modeling Unrealistic expectations Superficial sexual knowledge Normalization of problematic behavior Genetics If one identical twin is homosexual, the other twin has about a 50% chance of being gay (about 20% for fraternal twins) Hunger Biological Theories of Hunger Stomach contractions (hunger pangs) accompany our feelings of hunger Hunger does NOT come from out stomach It comes from our brain Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus When stimulated it makes you hungry Ghrelin (hormone) The hunger hormone Appetite stimulant Travels to LH after released by the stomach When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again Ventromedial Hypothalamus When stimulated you feel full Leptin (hormone) A protein produced by bloated fat cells; when these levels rise the body tells you to stop eating and pursue some type of activity Inhibits hunger Satiety Hormone (anorexigenic) When lesioned you will never feel full again Body Chemistry’s Influence on Hunger Glucose Blood sugar that provides energy to the body tissues When your glucose levels are LOW you will feel hungry, when your glucose levels are HIGH you will feel full  Low Glucose Levels = low sugar = hunger High Glucose Levels = high sugar = full (AKA Type II Diabetes) If you eat all the time, your insulin levels are high, and eventually cannot keep up with glucose levels People take shots of insulin to make up for it The hormone insulin is the primary regulator of glucose levels Without insulin, the body does not effectively dispose of glucose and provide it as energy (diabetes). Neurotransmitters Influence on Hunger Like glucose, if the following neurotransmitters are at low levels, you will feel hungry, and if they are at high levels you will feel full: Norepinephrine Dopamine Serotonin Genetic Influences on Hunger/Weight 1. Number or fat calls is determined by genetics to a certain extent 2. Set Point: body’s ideal weight set by its “weight" thermostat” When body falls below weight; hunger increases and a lowered metabolic rate continues 3. Basal Metabolic Rate (metabolism): body’s resting rate of energy expenditure Time’s Effect on Hunger Memory of our last meal can also affect hunger along with our schedule of when we usually eat Ex: Amnersia patients who cannot remember their last meal will readily eat another meal soon after the previous one Learning and Hunger Good eating habits are positively reinforced and bad habits punished, children will often eat healthy OPERANT CONDITIONING Ex: Parents Eat Junk Food People can also develop taste aversions due to certain associations CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ex: Chemotherapy patients Modeling: imitation of healthy or poor eating habits can affect a child’s eating Eating Disorders Culture’s Influence on Eating Although preferences for sweet and salty foods (dopamine) are genetic, Western eating norsns affect specific eating habits Anorexia Nervosa: Eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes signifigantly underweight, yet still feels fat and starves themselves High mortality rate of any psych disorder Extreme fear of weight gain —> resistance to eating Distored body image/body dysmorphia Prevents ovulation Risks premature osteoporosis, hair all over body, severe constipation  RISK FACTORS: Female Adolescents European/American Higher socio-economic status Bulimia Nervosa: An eating disorder usually characterized by excessive eating followed by vomiting Binging and purging (vomiting and laxatives) Constant sore throat Dental issues Kidney Damage Dehydration Addociated with perfectionists and childhood abuse Binge-Eating Disorder No Purging Can’t stop eating Overweight High sense of shame Obesity Theories Obesity Theory #1: Obesity and Set Point (Genetic) Obese person —> higher set point (# of fat cells) —> Eat more to feel satisfied/If eat less, become very sensitive to external cures Set Point Theory Gaining Weight Increase in body weight Increase in # and size of fat cells Raises set point (new normal) Losing Weight No decrease in # of fat cells Decrease in cell size Set Point doesn’t drop Obesity Theory #2: Obesity and External Cues (Enviorment) Obesity Oversensitivity to external cues based on social convention Sight, availability, time of day Insensitivity to internall cures Stomach contractions Obesity Theory #3: Obesity and Settling Point (Genetics and Enviorment) Rapid rise in obesity in USA 10% population in 1980, 31% in 1991 Cultural differences in diet Fast food nation Advice from Weight Loss Experts There is no easy route to weight loss Permanent changes in your lifestyle Set reasonable goals Exercise: critical factor in long run Avoid fad diets Don’t feel guilty Emotion Theories of Emotion 1. Schacter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion We experience physiological response and give it a cognitive label and this produces out emotions 2. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion The physiological response and the emotion are experienced at the same time 3. James-Lange Theory of Emotion A Physiological Response causes the emotion Emotion refers to the mix of: 1. Physiological arousal 2. Expressive Behaviors (how you react to the physiological arousal) 3. Concious Experience (how you cognitively interpret enviorment) Physiological Responses to Emotion The biology of FEAR: The body’s control center for learning/enacting fear is the amygdala Loss or damage to one’s amygdala has led to fearlessness in some patients Some pathways, especially ones involving amygdala (fear), bypass cortical areas involved in thinking Certain likes, dislikes, and fears do ignore concious thinking We have immediate reflexive reaction instead of thinking about it first Experiencing Emotions Adaptation-Level Phenomenon Describes the human tendency to judge various stimuli and situations relative to those we have previously experienced Hedonic Treadmill This is why winning the lottery would only make us happy for a short while. Once the novelty of having all that money wears off, we adapt to this new level of wealth Relative Deprivation Perception than one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself When this occurs in groups, riots can occur Upward Social Comparison Concept of Happines Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon: You will be helpful more often if you are in a good mood Subjective Well Being: Most common measurement of happiness, satisfaction, and quality of life Looks at physical as well as economic indicatiors Six Universal Emotions are Happiness Anger Disgust Suprise Sadness  Fear Interest Plutchick’s Psychoevolutionary Theory Adds 2 more Anticipation Trust Adaptive for survival Different levels of intensity than can combine to form complex emotions Personality Personality A person’s unique and realatively stable patterns of: 1. Behavior 2. Characteristics 3. Thoughts 4. Emotions The Humanistic Perspective Humanistic Perspective Focuses on the growth potential of healthy people - emphasis on growth, not reaction The power of free will (not determinism) How people view themselves as a whole in pursuit of growth (real self vs. ideal self) Freud too focused on sex/aggression The two founders are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers Self Concept: all thoughts and feelings about ourselves: “Who am I” Real self: recognition and acceptance of natural self Self Esteem: Feelings of self-worth Self-Serving Bias: A readiness to perceive oneself favorably People accept credit for their acheivements but blame others or the situation for their families Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs Beleived we are all born good and we naturally move towards self-actualization unless society gets in the way Different from Freud (sex/aggression) Focused on social factors Self Actualization: ultimate goal in hierarchy of needs; meet one’s potential Carl Rogers’ Person Centered Approach Believed all humans have potential for growth; they just need a climate that has 1. Genuineness (truthful/sincere) 2. Acceptance (unconditional positive regard) 3. Empathy (try to understand others) Unconditional Positive regard Attitude of toal acceptance towards another person The Trait Perspective Trait Perspective Looks to Describe personalitity in terms of fundemental traits:  Patterns of behavior or disposition to feel or act as assessed by self-reported inventories or peer reporters 5-10 central traits with which you are born The father of the trait eprsepctive of personality is Gordon Allport genetic —> no psychoanalysis, behaviorism, or enviormental determin Raymond Cattell The two overarching traits: 1. Surface: observable behaviors 2. Source: 16 total - source of serface traits 16 Personality Factors Psychometric Questionaire Measuring Personality 1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Most widely use personality test Purpose was to identify emotional disorders but is also now used for screening purposes for employment Test is an example of being an empirically derived test: Having pool of test questions that discriminate between groups 2. Eysenck’s 2 Dimensions of Personality Through factor analysis Hans Eysenck reduced the dimensions of personality down to two Introverted (keep to yourself)/ extroverted (outgoing) And Stable (Consistent)/ Unstable (changing) 3 Genetically Influenced Dimmensions 1. Extroersion vs. Introversion 2. Neuroticism Vs. Stability 3. Psychoticism Vs. Socialization 3. NEO PI-R (Trait Perspective): The Big Five Personality traits 1. Openness (to experience): measures factors of active imagination, preference for variety, and intellectual curiosity 2. Conscientiousness: measures self discipline, carefullness, need for achievement, and degree by which people think before acting 3. Extraversion: measures social interaction and how assertive people are 4. Agreeableness: measures how ampathetic, considerate, friendly, and helpful people are 5. Neuroticism: measures people’s tendencies to experience negative emotional states like stress and anxiety Social Cognitive Perspective Albert Bandura Father of Social Sognitive Perspective Also the social learning theory and observational learning Social Cognitive Perspective: Importance of external events (society) and how we interpret them (cognition) Affects your personality Ex: Bobo Doll Experiment B.F. Skinner No Free will Enviormental determinism Reciprocal determinism Observational learning Self-Efficacy  Reciprocal Determinism Enviorment influences personality and personality influences the enviorment Differs from the behavioral perspective which says that one’s enviorment causes one’s behavior The same enviorment can have completely different effects on different people because of how they interpret and react to external events Social Influences of Personality Individualism Giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications Collectivism Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly Self-Efficacy: A person’s belief in his/her ability to succed in a specific situation Julian Rotter’s Theory of Personal Control and Locus of Control Internal Locus of COntrol Idea that one controls their own destiny Acheivement is highest under this level External Locus of Control Idea that one’s fate is outside of their personal control and determined by luck Psychoanalusis/Psychodynamic Perspective Unconscious forces determine behavior/personality 3 Levels: 1. Consciousness - awareness 2. Preconsciousness - easy retrieval with effort 3. Unconscious ID - Pleasure Principle (Impluses) Ego - Reality Principle (Reasonableness) Superego - Morality Principle (Complying with Authority) Sex/Agression Repression/Suppression Libido D Defense Mechanisms Repression: Reduce anciety by blocking memories Ex: Infantile Amnesia Regression: reverting to an earlier period of psychological developments Ex: Frustrating project leads to tantrums and bedwetting Displacement: Shifting of agression/urges towards someone who is not the source/cause of urges Ex: Serial killer targeting women who look like his mother Projection: When anxiety producing feeligns are repressed and then projected onto another person Ex: Cheater suspecting parter of cheating Denial: Refusal of ego to accept the reality of a situation Accusations of election fraud Reaction-Formation: transforming an uncontrollable urge into its opposite Pyromanic becoming a firefighter Rationalization: Distoring an excuse for an unacceptable behavior Cheating because others cheat  Sublimation: Redireting an unacceptable urge to something with social value Ex: Love fighting —> join WFC Fixations Oral Stage Birth to 1 ½ years old Overeacting, smoking, sarcasm Anal Stage Two to three years olf Anal Retentive: OCD, exessive neatness Anal Expulsive: Sessy, rebellious Phallic Stage 3 to 6 years old Oedipus Complex: Fear/hostility towards father, longing for mother, castration anxiety —> indetification with father Electra Complex: Blames mother for lack of penis —> penis envy Latency Stage 6 Years old to puberty Child focuses on intellectual/ social development —> learns gender roles Genital Stage Pueberty Onward “Normal” sexual desires Psychodynamic Perspective Carl Jung Unconscious 1. Personal Repressed thoughts/emotions 2. Collective Universal human experiences or ARCHETYPES “Ideal of the mother” Shadow: evil/dark side Animus: male archetype in females Anima: female archetype in males Introvert Vs. Extrovert Source of Direction of energy/libido Individualism NOT sex/agression Becoming fully aware of “true self” by assimilating personal and collective unconcious into conscious awareness Persona: the personality a person presents to the work Erik Erikson Social influeces throughout life influence the development of personality Karen Horney Penis Envy Metiphorical NOT literal Power in patriarchal society Womb envy Male envy ability to create life Culture Main driver of formation of personality  Issues in childhood could cause neuroses in adulthood Albert Adler Individual Psychology The drive to reach goals/find purpose Driving force behind personality is need for superiority Compensation: when met with feelings of inferiority, you develop your own abilities Inferiority Complex: OVERcompensation Birth Order Theory First vs Middle vs Last child in development of personality Stress Effects of Stress on Health Behavioral Medicine Combines knowledge of biomedical perspective and behavioral perspective to study and treat health and illness Term is often used interchangebly with Psychaiatry Health Psychology Subfield of Psychology Contributes to behavioral medicine Looks at psychological causes of illness and stress (cognitive, enviorment, social, biological, ect.) Stress is the process by which we respond to events we appraise as threatning or challenges Can be: Positive Eutress Negative Distress Frustrations: Diffuculties with stressors External: Bills Personal: Procrastination Stressors The events/things that stress us out Hypothalamic-Pituaitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA) Amygdala recognizes a threat —> message sent to hypothalamus —> message sent to pituitary gland —> message sent to adrenal glands to release: Adrenaline Noradrenaline Cotisol Biology of Stress Stress-Response Cycle Includes: Sympathetic Nervous System: release of adrenaline (hormone) and norepinephrine (neurotransmitter) Cerebral cortex (through hypothalamus and pituitary gland): releases stress hormone (cortisol) Hans-Selye discovered the responsive cycle for how we react to stress, which he named the: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Phase 1: Alarm: activation of sympathetic nervous system  Phase 2: Resistance: arousal remains high as you attemp to cope with the stressor “fight or flight” Phase 2: Exaustion: body becomes run down with constant stress which can leave you more vulnerable to illness or even death Burnout Physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion brought on by persistent job-related stress Coronary Heart Disease When vessels of heart are clogged which stops heart muscles from being nourished Many behavioral factors help contribute to this disease but stress is also a major factor Psychophysiological illnesses “mind-body” illnesses, physical illnesses caused by stress Ex: hypertension, some headaches, increase DP Also are referred to as psychosomatic disorders Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Stressful tensions state caused by being simultaneously attracted and repulsed by the same goal Social Psychology Social Cognition How we think about ourselves/others in social situations Social Influence How we are influenced by others Social Behavior How we behave in social situations Social Situation Influence/controls behavior Class Lunch room Funeral Famous Experiements Asch Line Experiment Milgram’s Obedience Study Zimbardo’s Prison Study Social Influences on the “Self” Self Concept - Who am I? Self Esteem - What am I worth? Schema Cognotive filter through which we view the world/interpret info Self-Schema A construct about yourself and your experiences In group: Group for which an individual has strong loyalty, respect and togetherness due to a common feature In-Group Bias: Favoritism towards other members of a shared group based on shared feelings and admiration  Out-Group Bias: A group of people who hold different beliefs from an individual for whom they feel animosity towards The Pygmalion Effect/Teacher Expectancy Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study: Gave kids a fake test Lied to teachers about top 20 performers Gave kids real test at end of year Found that fake top 20 performers were the top 20 performers Teachers must have influenced these children more throughout the year Teachers unknowingly behaved in a manner that would confirm earlier beliefs Self Fullilling Prophecy The idea that anticipating something will cause a person to imperceptibly change his/her behavior to make it more likely that the anticipated event will occur Ex: A boy has the name Larry Sprinkle and grows up to be a weatherman Explaining Behaivor Attribution The process of explaining why a person behaves a certain way, as a way of understanding how and why individuals explain their own behaviors, as well as the behaviors of others 2 Dimernsions: 1. Internal v external 2. Stable v Unstable Attrubution Theories: 1. Internal Factors (Disposition/Nature) Behavior that is explained as a result of personal characteristics 2. External Factors (Situational/Nurture) Behavior is explained as the result of unavoidable factors Stable Attribution Smart v Dumb Internal and stable within an individual Unstable Attribution Temporary and due to behavior Studying for a test Errors in Attribution 1. Self Serving Bias The tendency to attribute success to internal factors while blaming failure on external situations Ex: You get an A on your test and say it is because you studied hard (dispositional) Ex: You get an F on your test and blames your grade on having to work late the night before (situational) 2. Fundemental Sttribution Error (FAE) Tendency for observers, when observing others, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition Ultimate attribution Error  Applying to an entire group, like gender or ethnic group 3. Actor-Observer Bias Attribute behaviors to situational effects when we are the actor, but attribute behavior to dispositional factors when we are the observer