Psychology Test PDF

Terman defined intelligence as the ability to think abstractly using symbols such as words and numbers Intelligence includes: 1. Quick learning - the ability to acquire new knowledge quickly 2. Effective application - the ability to use the the learned information in practical situation...

Terman defined intelligence as the ability to think abstractly using symbols such as words and numbers Intelligence includes: 1. Quick learning - the ability to acquire new knowledge quickly 2. Effective application - the ability to use the the learned information in practical situations 3. Quick understanding - the capacity to grasp concepts and ideas swiftly 4. Foresight - the ability to anticipate the consequences of actions. 5. Wise decision making - The capacity to make sound judgments to achieve goals. Development of Intelligence measurement Initial Measurements - Began with measuring physical traits, such as the dimensions of the skull. Evolving concepts - Pearson proved the weak relationship between mental strength and physical appearances Other traits - included abilities like sensory discrimination, focus, and attention Intelligence is more than just learning facts, it involves applying knowledge, understanding quickly and making wise decisions. Measuring intelligence over time: early methods mistakenly tried to link intelligence to physical features such as skull size over time this evolved into focusing on mental abilities like sensory perception, attention and reasoning. Binet’s intelligence scale is one of the first tools designed to measure intelligence 1. Original purpose - it aimed to identify children who required special educationala support. 2. Age based model - Binet assumed that as children grow their cognitive abilities improve. 3. Refinement - over time the scale was improved by removing biased or inappropriate questions making it more effective for evaluating diverse children. Intelligence distribution Intelligence is naturally distributed according to the normal curve where the majority fall into the average intelligence category Individuals with an IQ above 140 represent a very small percentage not exceeding 1% The average IQ ranges from 90 to 110 which includes about 50% of people 1. Normal curve (Bell curve) Most people fall into the average range (IQ 90 - 110) Extreme levels of intelligence (very low or very high) are rare. 2. High IQ (above 140) These individuals are considered highly gifted or geniuses and make up less than 1% of the population. Types of Attention: Forced Attention - Definition: This type of attention is drawn automatically in response to a strong, sudden stimulus that demands your immediate focus, like an unexpected sound or event. Example: Hearing a loud gunshot or an alarm going off will force you to pay attention instantly, without choice. Characteristics: Happens suddenly and is usually triggered by something dangerous or startling. Automatic Attention - Definition: This attention happens naturally, often in response to familiar or interesting stimuli. It doesn’t require effort or intention on your part. Example: A child being drawn to a toy. The child doesn't have to make an effort; it simply happens because the toy is visually or emotionally engaging. Characteristics: The attention is automatic and effortless, driven by your natural interest or external factors. Voluntary attention - Definition: This requires conscious effort and control. You choose to focus on something even if it's not particularly interesting or exciting. Example: Focusing on a long lecture or studying for an exam. Despite distractions or lack of immediate interest, you direct your attention intentionally. Characteristics: It demands mental effort and active concentration.  Forced Attention: Triggered by sudden, strong stimuli (e.g., loud noises, alarms). Automatic Attention: Happens naturally and effortlessly (e.g., a child being drawn to a toy). Voluntary Attention: Requires conscious effort and focus (e.g., concentrating on a lecture or task). Factors affecting attention External factors 1. Intensity of the stimulus like a loud noise 2. Repetition of the stimulus such as hearing a repeated sound 3. Position of the stimulus like something at eye level 4. Movement of the stimulus such as a moving object Internal Factors 1. Current mental readiness such as a mother being prepared to hear her baby’s cry 2. Organic needs such as paying attention to the smell of food when hungry 3. Things inside you, like how prepared or interested you are. For example, a mother might be more focused on hearing her baby cry because she is mentally ready for it. Sensory perception is our understanding of what we pay attention to; it varies from person to person depending on their psychological and cognitive state. The Impact of Personal Factors on Perception Perception refers to the way we interpret and make sense of the information we receive from our senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell). It's how our brain processes and understands what we experience in the world around us. For example: Seeing a tree: Your eyes take in the image of the tree, but your brain processes this information and interprets it as a "tree." Hearing a voice: Your ears pick up sound waves, and your brain interprets the sounds as a particular voice. Perception is not just about receiving sensory information, but also about how we organize, interpret, and give meaning to that information based on our past experiences, emotions, and beliefs.  1. Physical state: Our body’s needs can influence our perceptions. For example a person who is hungry might have a different view of a picture than someone who is full. This is because our brain is focused on meeting basic needs like food which can alter how we interpret what we see. 2. Mood state: Your emotional state plays a huge role in how you perceive others and situations. If you are angry you might assume others are also angry. Conversely when you’re happy you’re more likely to see others in a positive light. 3. Psychological readiness: If you are expecting something like seeing a friend your brain can trick you into thinking you spot them even if they’re not actually there. This happens because your brain is primed to look for that person. 4. Emotional Bias: Our emotions, such as anger or happiness, can shape our perception of the world. These emotions can influence how we interpret events and other people’s behaviors. For example, if you're angry, you might see someone’s neutral expression as a sign of hostility. Effect of Values and Beliefs: Religious, social and economic values influence how we perceive and evaluate events or people. For instance our background or personal beliefs might make us view situations or individuals in a certain way possibly distorting our perception Mood State: Refers to your current emotional condition, which can change frequently and is often temporary (e.g., happy, sad, angry). Your mood influences how you perceive the world around you at a particular moment. Example: ○ If you are angry, you might perceive a neutral comment as a criticism. ○ If you're happy, you might see the same comment as a joke. Emotional Bias: Refers to a longer-term influence of emotions on your perception. It’s more about how your feelings shape the way you interpret events consistently over time. Emotional bias can stem from underlying feelings (like fear, love, or resentment) and often reflects patterns of interpreting things based on those emotions. Example: ○ If you have a bias toward someone you dislike, you might assume their actions are intentionally harmful, even if they're not. Key Difference: 1. Mood State is temporary and changes based on the situation you're in at the moment. 2. Emotional Bias is more ingrained and reflects a pattern of how your emotions affect your interpretation of things over time. How They Work Together: Your mood state can feed into your emotional bias. For example: If you’re frequently angry (mood state), you might develop a bias that makes you interpret many situations negatively over time (emotional bias). The Relationship Between Psychology and Physiology: Psychology and physiology are complementary sciences. Physiology studies the functions of individual organs, while psychology examines their overall effect on mental and emotional states. It explains how a person's psychological state affects their organs and the resulting physiological changes. Physiology (How the Body Works): Physiology focuses on the physical functions of individual body parts, like the brain, heart, and muscles. For example, it studies how the heart pumps blood or how the brain sends signals through the nervous system. Psychology (How the Mind Works): Psychology looks at the mind, emotions, and behavior. It studies things like stress, happiness, sadness, and how they affect the way we act or feel. How They Are Connected: Our mental state (psychology) directly affects how our body functions (physiology). For example: ○ Stress: If you're stressed, your brain signals your body to release stress hormones like adrenaline. This makes your heart beat faster and your breathing speed up. ○ Happiness: When you're happy, your body releases hormones like endorphins, which make you feel relaxed and reduce physical pain. Physiology Affects Psychology Too: Problems in the body can also affect your mental state. For example: ○ If you're in physical pain, it can make you feel irritable or sad. ○ A hormonal imbalance (like low serotonin) might cause depression. 1. Stress and Its Physical Effects Psychology: When you're stressed, your brain perceives a threat (even if it's just an exam or a work deadline). Physiology: ○ Your brain signals the release of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline. ○ This leads to physical changes like increased heart rate, faster breathing, sweating, and muscle tension. ○ Long-term stress can even weaken your immune system and cause illnesses like high blood pressure or heart disease. 2. Anxiety and the Digestive System Psychology: If you're feeling anxious or nervous, it can affect your body. Physiology: ○ Anxiety can trigger the release of chemicals in the brain that disrupt digestion, causing nausea, stomach pain, or diarrhea (often called a "nervous stomach"). ○ This happens because anxiety activates the "fight or flight" response, diverting blood away from the stomach to your muscles. 3. Happiness and Physical Health Psychology: When you feel happy or content, your brain releases "feel-good" hormones like dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins. Physiology: ○ These hormones lower stress levels, reduce pain, and improve immune system function. ○ Happy people are also less likely to experience heart problems and tend to recover faster from illnesses. 4. Depression and Sleep Issues Psychology: Depression, a mental health condition, affects your emotions and thoughts. Physiology: ○ Depression often disrupts the brain's ability to regulate sleep, causing insomnia or oversleeping. ○ It can also lead to physical fatigue and a weakened immune system. 5. Fear and the Fight-or-Flight Response Psychology: If you suddenly feel fear (like seeing a snake), your brain reacts instantly. Physiology: ○ Your body releases adrenaline, causing your heart to race, your breathing to quicken, and your muscles to tense up. ○ This prepares your body to either "fight" the threat or "flee" from it. The Relationship Between Psychology and Sociology: Psychology focuses on understanding individual issues, while sociology studies broader societal problems. Psychology contributes to serving society through research on sensation, perception, memory, emotions, family formation, and group dynamics. From this intersection, the field of social psychology emerged, combining psychology and sociology to explore how individuals interact within their social environments. Psychology focuses on the individual—how they think, feel, and behave. Sociology examines groups, societies, and the structures that influence behavior. When combined, they form social psychology, which looks at how an individual's behavior is influenced by their social environment. Family Dynamics: Psychology: Studies how family interactions affect an individual’s mental health, such as how parenting styles influence a child's self-esteem. Sociology: Examines the role of families as social institutions, how cultural norms shape family roles, and how family structures vary across societies. Group Behavior: ○ Psychology: Focuses on phenomena like peer pressure, conformity, or how being in a group can change an individual's decision-making (e.g., groupthink). ○ Sociology: Studies how groups form, how societal norms dictate group behavior, and how groups influence larger social structures. Education: Psychology: Looks at how individuals learn, including learning styles, motivation, and memory. Sociology: Analyzes how education systems impact social mobility, how inequality affects access to education, and the role of schools in maintaining or challenging social norms. Psychology and Development: It is also referred to as developmental psychology. This field studies the structural and developmental changes that occur in an individual’s physical, mental, emotional, and social aspects from the moment of their creation (conception) until the end of their life. Individual Differences: Individual differences refer to the variation among people of the same age in terms of their abilities and mental capacities. Causes of Individual Differences: 1. Genetics and Environment: Differences inherited through genes and shaped by life circumstances. 2. Age: Abilities and capacities vary at different life stages. 3. Gender: Biological and social differences between males and females can influence abilities. 4. Previous Experiences: Past experiences can shape skills, knowledge, and reactions. Sources of Developmental Demands: 1. Embryonic History: Refers to the physical and genetic foundation laid during the early stages of life, which affects growth and development. 2. Cultural Pattern of Society: The cultural norms, traditions, and expectations of a society shape an individual's growth and behavior. 3. The Individual Themself: Personal desires, motivations, and choices play a key role in directing an individual's development. Goals of Psychology in Scientific Research: Psychology aims to achieve the following goals in scientific research: 1. Description: Observing and identifying behaviors or phenomena. 2. Explanation: Understanding the reasons behind behaviors or occurrences. 3. Prediction: Anticipating future behaviors or outcomes based on patterns. 4. Control: Modifying or influencing behaviors to achieve desired outcomes. Innate Drives: Innate drives are biological motivations that an individual is born with and does not need to learn. These psychological drives are inherited and not acquired. Examples of Innate Drives: 1. Hunger and Thirst: ○ Basic survival needs that the individual is born with. 2. Fear: ○ An innate response that changes with age. ○ In childhood, simple stimuli like loud noises can trigger fear. ○ In adulthood, fear stimuli become more diverse, such as fear of darkness or social rejection. 3. Anger: ○ As the individual matures, expressions of anger also evolve. ○ In childhood, anger might be expressed through crying or tantrums. ○ In adulthood, it is expressed in more controlled and polite ways.  1. Curiosity Drive: ○ Motivates exploration and discovery. ○ In childhood, it manifests as exploring surroundings or asking parents questions. ○ In adulthood, it develops into hobbies like reading, traveling, or adventurous activities. 2. Play Drive: ○ Seen in childhood as free play, which enhances skills and reduces stress. ○ While it is most noticeable in children, it lays the foundation for creativity, problem-solving, and teamwork in later stages of life Innate drives reflect the human tendency to adapt, grow, and respond to their environment in ways that foster survival and development. Culture: The norms, values, traditions, and beliefs of a society shape an individual’s personality. Example: A person growing up in a collectivist culture (prioritizing group harmony) may develop traits like cooperation, while someone from an individualistic culture may emphasize independence. Family: The family environment is a primary influence during childhood. Parental behavior, communication styles, and emotional support play a significant role in shaping personality. Example: A nurturing family fosters confidence, while a strict or neglectful one might lead to insecurity. School: Schools contribute by teaching social norms, discipline, and teamwork. Peer interactions and teacher-student relationships further influence the development of personality traits like assertiveness, leadership, and empathy. Example: A student encouraged to participate in activities may develop self-confidence, while a lack of involvement may lead to shyness. Culture: The cultural environment you grow up in shapes your behavior, values, and beliefs. For example, in some cultures, cooperation and family are prioritized, while in others, independence and personal achievement are more important. Family: Your family plays a big role in your personality development. Parents influence how you manage emotions, solve problems, and relate to others. For instance, loving, supportive parents can help build self-confidence, while a strict or distant family can affect your self-esteem. School: School teaches you how to interact with peers and authority figures. It also influences your social skills, leadership, and academic habits. Positive experiences in school can make you more confident, while negative experiences (like bullying) can affect your social behavior. Personality Types According to Jung 1. Introvert: ○ Romantic, imaginative, focused on thoughts and values. ○ Tends to prefer solitude and introspection over social interactions. 2. Extrovert: ○ Practical, sociable, and interested in social events and belonging to groups. ○ Enjoys being around people and is energized by social interactions. Personality Traits 1. Temperamental Traits: ○ These traits are influenced by an individual’s physiological makeup, such as the nervous and endocrine systems. ○ They are largely hereditary and difficult to change, unlike social or moral traits, which can be influenced by external factors and experiences. ○ temperamental traits are characteristics related to a person's mood, behavior, or emotional reactions. These traits are mainly shaped by a person's physiological makeup, like their nervous system (which controls emotions and reactions) and endocrine system (which controls hormones). ○ They are inherited and hard to change. For example, someone may be naturally calm or easily stressed. 1. Social and Moral Traits: ○ These traits are shaped by experiences and environment, such as how you interact with others or your values. ○ They can change over time, depending on your life experiences. Temperamental traits: These are traits related to how we're naturally wired. For example, introverts tend to feel more comfortable in quiet, solitary environments, while extroverts feel energized by social interactions. These traits are harder to change because they come from deep within, like our nervous system and how our brain works. Social traits: These are traits related to how we behave in social situations, and they can change over time. For example, someone who is shy (a social trait) might become more outgoing through practice or experience, but their basic temperament (whether they're introverted or extroverted) is likely to stay the same. So, introverts and extroverts have different temperamental traits, which are harder to change, but their social traits can evolve based on their experiences or environments. You can have a mix of both, meaning someone might be introverted (temperament) but develop more social skills or confidence over time (social traits), or vice versa. In short, while your core nature (whether you're introverted or extroverted) is largely determined by your temperament, how you behave in social situations can evolve and change over time. Measuring Learning In psychology, measuring learning means observing and assessing how well someone is learning a task or skill. This helps to understand how much and how well a person is learning, based on different factors like speed, accuracy, skill, and number of attempts. It's a way to track improvement over time or see how effective a learning method is. For example, if someone is learning to solve math problems, measuring their learning could include: Speed: How fast they complete the problems compared to before. Accuracy: How many mistakes they make.  Skill: How well they adjust when facing different types of math problems. Number of Attempts: How many times it takes for them to understand or master the concept. 1. Speed: ○ How quickly a person performs a task or activity. ○ Example: Completing a math problem in less time than usual. 2. Accuracy: ○ Performing the task with the fewest mistakes. ○ Example: Solving a puzzle correctly without errors. 3. Skill: ○ The ability to adapt and perform in different roles or situations. ○ how versatile and adaptable you are when faced with new or changing tasks. ○ Example: A person adjusting well when switching tasks, like moving from a leader role to a supporting role. 4. Number of Attempts: ○ How many tries it takes to learn or master a task. ○ Example: The number of times someone tries a task before they succeed, like learning to ride a bike. Instincts Instincts are innate psychological and physical tendencies that drive an individual to notice certain things and feel specific emotions towards them. Here are some types of instincts: Instinct of Escape (‫)غريزة الخالص‬: The natural tendency to flee from danger or avoid threats. Example: A person instinctively running away when they sense danger. Fighting Instinct (‫)غريزة المقاتلة‬: The natural drive to fight back when threatened or when defending oneself. Example: A person defending themselves when attacked. Parental Instinct (‫)غريزة الوالدية‬: The innate tendency to care for and protect offspring. Example: A mother instinctively protecting her child from harm. Instinct of Exploration (‫)غريزة االستطالع‬: The natural desire to explore and learn about new environments. Example: A child exploring their surroundings out of curiosity. Hunting for Food Instinct (‫)غريزة البحث عن الطعام‬: The drive to seek out food for survival. Example: An animal searching for food to eat. Calling for Help Instinct (‫)غريزة االستغاثة‬: The instinct to seek assistance when in danger or in need. Example: A person shouting for help when in distress. Instinct of Aversion (‫)غريزة النفور‬: The natural feeling of dislike or avoidance of something that could be harmful or unpleasant. Example: A person instinctively feeling disgusted by spoiled food. Instincts are natural, inherited behaviors that make us react to certain things without thinking about it. Here are some types:  1. Escape Instinct: ○ The natural urge to run away from danger. ○ Example: Running when you see a scary situation. 2. Fight Instinct: ○ The natural urge to fight back when threatened. ○ Example: Defending yourself if someone attacks you. 3. Parental Instinct: ○ The natural drive to care for and protect your children. ○ Example: A mother protecting her child. 4. Exploration Instinct: ○ The natural curiosity to explore and learn about new things. ○ Example: A child exploring a new place out of curiosity. 5. Hunting for Food Instinct: ○ The drive to search for food when you're hungry. ○ Example: Searching for food when you're hungry. 6. Seeking Help Instinct: ○ The urge to ask for help when in trouble. ○ Example: Shouting for help when you're in danger. 7. Disgust Instinct: ○ The natural reaction to avoid or feel disgusted by something harmful. ○ Example: Turning away from spoiled food. Other Types of Instincts 1. Control Instinct (‫)غريزة السيطرة‬: ○ The desire to control situations, people, or environments. ○ Example: A person wanting to lead or dominate a group. 2. Submission Instinct (‫)غريزة الخنوع‬: ○ The natural tendency to yield or submit to authority or dominance. ○ Example: Following rules or obeying a leader without question.  3. Possession Instinct (‫)غريزة التملك‬: ○ The urge to own or possess things, people, or even ideas. ○ Example: Wanting to own property or feeling possessive over relationships. 4. Creation and Destruction Instinct (‫)غريزة الحل والتركيب‬: ○ The drive to create new things or break down existing ones. ○ Example: A person building something new or tearing something down to make room for change. 5. Social Instinct (‫)الغريزة االجتماعية‬: ○ The natural need to connect with others and live in social groups. ○ Example: Seeking friendship or forming communities. 6. Laughter Instinct (‫)غريزة الضحك‬: ○ The instinct to laugh, often in response to humor or joy. ○ Example: Laughing at a funny joke or situation. Signs of Mental Health - These points highlight what a healthy mind looks like. If someone struggles with several of these areas (e.g., they can’t handle frustration or feel unhappy often), it could be a sign of mental health issues. 1. Social Adjustment: ○ If you have good mental health, you can interact well with others, adapt to different social situations, and maintain healthy relationships. 2. Self-Adjustment: ○ You feel comfortable with who you are, accept yourself (even with flaws), and have a positive self-image. 3. High Frustration Tolerance: ○ Mentally healthy people can handle challenges, setbacks, or annoyances without losing control or giving up easily.  4. Feeling of Contentment and Happiness: ○ A person with good mental health regularly experiences positive emotions like joy, satisfaction, and peace, even when life isn’t perfect. 5. Adequate Productivity: ○ Being able to complete tasks, work efficiently, and achieve your goals is a sign of being mentally balanced and focused. 6. Constructive Efforts: ○ Mentally healthy people engage in activities that help them grow or improve their lives, such as learning, helping others, or setting goals. 7. Behavioral Stage: ○ This means showing appropriate and balanced behavior in different situations, like reacting calmly to stress or managing emotions effectively. It was characterized by John Watson's two-factor theory. What is it saying? John Watson believed that behavior is not random or purely instinctive; instead, it can be conditioned or taught. ○ Conditioned means that certain behaviors can develop when a person experiences something repeatedly or makes associations between things. 2. How Does Conditioning Work? Watson built on the idea that behaviors can be learned through associations. ○ For example: If every time a dog hears a bell, it is fed, the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Eventually, the dog will start salivating just by hearing the bell, even if no food is present. This is a conditioned behavior (learned through repetition).  ○ Watson’s Contribution: He applied this concept to human behavior, suggesting people’s behaviors (like fears or habits) can be influenced by their environment and experiences. Ivan Pavlov’s Influence Who is Ivan Pavlov? A Russian scientist famous for discovering classical conditioning. He experimented with dogs to show how they learned through associations. ○ Classical Conditioning Example: Before learning: Food naturally makes a dog salivate (no learning needed). During learning: Pavlov rang a bell every time the dog was given food. After learning: The dog started salivating just by hearing the bell, even if there was no food. ○ What Watson learned from Pavlov: Watson saw Pavlov’s experiments and realized that people can also learn behaviors the same way—by associating one thing with another. He observed that dogs would salivate not just when they saw food but also when they heard a sound (like a bell) that had been consistently paired with food. He demonstrated that behaviors could be learned through association: Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) → Unconditioned Response (Salivation) Pairing a Neutral Stimulus (Bell) with food repeatedly led the bell alone to trigger salivation. The Neutral Stimulus became a Conditioned Stimulus, and the salivation became a Conditioned Response’ Watson was inspired by Pavlov’s findings and wanted to apply the idea of classical conditioning to human emotions—specifically, fear. In the "Little Albert" experiment, Watson used Pavlov’s framework: Unconditioned Stimulus (Loud Noise) → Unconditioned Response (Fear) Pairing the Neutral Stimulus (White Rat) with the loud noise led to Albert fearing the white rat alone. The Neutral Stimulus (Rat) became a Conditioned Stimulus, and Albert’s fear became a Conditioned Response. Pavlov worked with biological responses (like salivation) in animals Watson focused on emotional responses (like fear) in humans. Key Idea of the Passage: Watson took Pavlov’s idea of classical conditioning and applied it to human behavior, showing that people’s actions can be shaped by their experiences and environment. His two-factor theory means that: Associations - This is about pairing two things together so that one predicts the other. 1. Example: In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell was paired with food, and over time, the dog learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. 2. Key idea: Associations create a connection between two things, leading to a specific response (like salivating when hearing the bell). Experiences -This is about repeated exposure to a situation or activity that shapes behavior over time. 1. Example: If a child repeatedly interacts with friendly dogs, they develop a positive attitude toward dogs. 2. Key idea: Experiences don’t necessarily involve pairing two things; instead, they condition behavior through repeated exposure and learning. Simplified Example to Understand: Imagine you’re afraid of dogs because you were bitten as a child: 1. The dog bite (experience) made you associate dogs with danger or pain. 2. Over time (conditioning): You start feeling fear every time you see or hear a dog, even if it hasn’t bitten you. Edward Thorndike, known for trial and error learning, and B.F. Skinner, known for operant conditioning theory, were prominent scientists. Edward Thorndike What it means: Thorndike believed that we learn behaviors by trying different actions and seeing what happens as a result. If something we do has a positive outcome, we are more likely to repeat it. If it has a negative or unwanted outcome, we are less likely to repeat it. How it works: Imagine you're trying to open a door: ○ First try: You push the door, but it doesn't open. ○ Second try: You pull the door, and it opens. ○ What happens next: Since pulling the door worked, you will likely pull the door next time to open it, rather than pushing it.  ○ Key idea: So in Thorndike's theory, learning is about making attempts, seeing the results, and then adjusting your actions based on what you learned. B.F. Skinner is known for his operant conditioning theory, which emphasizes how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. Both were key figures in the field of behavioral psychology. What it means: Skinner’s theory is a bit similar but focuses on reinforcement and punishment as tools to influence behavior. The difference is that Skinner focused more on how the environment shapes behavior by rewarding or punishing actions. Example: A child gets a cookie every time they finish their homework. The reward (cookie) encourages the child to keep doing the homework in the future. Thorndike's trial-and-error involves trying different behaviors to find the one that works. Skinner’s operant conditioning focuses on reinforcing or punishing specific behaviors to either encourage or discourage them. Both ideas are about learning from experience, but Skinner focuses on the reward/punishment part, while Thorndike focuses on trying and figuring out what works through experience. Example of Punishment: Imagine a child who keeps leaving their toys on the floor. 1. Behavior: The child leaves their toys on the floor. 2. Punishment: As a result, the parent takes away a privilege, like screen time or a favorite toy. 3. Effect: The child dislikes losing the privilege (screen time), and this unpleasant consequence makes the child less likely to leave toys on the floor in the future. The punishment (losing the screen time) decreases the likelihood that the child will repeat the behavior (leaving toys on the floor). The child learns that leaving toys on the floor leads to an unpleasant outcome (loss of screen time), so they are less likely to do it again. Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving extra chores). Negative punishment: Taking away something the person likes to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a toy or privilege). Psychology: It is the scientific study of the behavior of living organisms, aiming to understand, control, and predict behavior in the future. Personality: Personality is the dynamic organization of factors and traits that distinguish an individual and determine how they interact with the environment. Mental Processes: Mental processes are the operations that occur inside the mind and explain different activities of human interaction with the surrounding environment. These include attention, perception, thinking, memory, and decision-making. Intelligence: Terman defines intelligence as the ability to think abstractly using symbols such as words and numbers. Learning (Guilford's definition): Learning is any change in behavior resulting from stimulation. Psychological Drives: Psychological drives are mental and physical states that direct behavior toward a specific goal and persist until it is achieved. Individual Differences: Individual differences refer to variations among individuals in mental abilities, behavior, and personal traits. Aptitudes: Aptitude is the individual's inherent ability to learn quickly and easily and to reach a high level of skill in a specific area. Sensory Perception: Sensory perception is our understanding of what we pay attention to, and it varies from person to person depending on their psychological and cognitive state. Attention: Attention is a selective process, meaning that we do not focus on all the stimuli around us; instead, we choose to focus on specific ones. Organize the psychological needs into a pyramid and explain one of them. Answer: Physiological needs (food, water, sleep). Safety and security needs. Belongingness and love needs. Esteem needs. Self-actualization needs. According to Maslow's theory, physiological needs must be satisfied first. A person deprived of food, for example, focuses their attention on this deficiency, which leads to a decrease in interest in other needs. For this reason, many poor people are not preoccupied with self-actualization because they are focused on fulfilling their basic needs. Physiological Needs (Most Important): These are the basic needs for survival, like food, water, and sleep. If these aren’t met, a person can’t focus on anything else because they need these to live. Safety Needs: Once basic needs are met, people seek safety and security. This includes things like having a stable job, health, and a safe living environment. Belongingness and Love Needs: Humans have a need to feel loved and accepted. This includes relationships with family, friends, and partners, and being part of a community. Esteem Needs: This involves the desire for respect from others and self-respect. People want to feel valued, confident, and capable of achieving things. Self-Actualization (Least Important): This is the need to reach your full potential and become the best version of yourself. It’s about personal growth, creativity, and fulfilling your purpose in life. Maslow’s theory suggests that people have a hierarchy of needs, starting with the most basic ones at the bottom. Physiological needs, like food, water, and sleep, are the foundation. If these needs are not met, they become the main focus of a person’s attention because survival is the priority. For example, if someone is hungry and hasn’t eaten for a while, their main concern will be getting food. They won’t be thinking about things like personal growth, achieving goals, or fulfilling their potential (which is part of self-actualization at the top of the pyramid). Their mind is focused on satisfying that immediate need for food because it is essential for survival. So, if a person is struggling with basic needs like hunger or homelessness, they may not have the mental or emotional energy to focus on things like pursuing hobbies, self-improvement, or achieving their goals. These higher-level needs, like self-actualization, only become important once the basic needs are met. In short, when a person is dealing with basic survival needs, they are less likely to think about personal growth or self-actualization because their focus is entirely on fulfilling those basic needs first. Theoretical Branches of Psychology: 1. General Psychology: Focuses on the basic principles and concepts of psychology, studying human behavior in general and how the mind works. 2. Developmental Psychology: Studies the psychological changes that occur throughout a person's life, from childhood to old age. 3. Physiological Psychology: Explores the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behavior, focusing on how biological processes affect psychological functioning. 4. Social Psychology: Examines how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence and actions of others in society. 5. Abnormal Psychology: Investigates psychological disorders, including their causes, symptoms, and treatments. 6. Comparative Psychology: Compares the behavior of different species, including humans and animals, to understand similarities and differences. 7. Differential Psychology: Focuses on individual differences in traits, abilities, and behavior, studying how and why people differ from one another. 8. Educational Psychology: Studies how people learn and the best methods to teach and help students succeed in education. 9. Cognitive Psychology: Investigates mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. General Psychology: This branch focuses on the basic concepts of human behavior and mental processes. It covers the foundations of psychology, like perception, learning, motivation, and emotion, aiming to understand how people think, feel, and act in different situations. Developmental Psychology: This field studies how individuals change and grow throughout their lives. It looks at physical, emotional, cognitive, and social development from infancy to old age, exploring how people develop skills, relationships, and behaviors over time. Physiological Psychology: Focuses on the connection between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. It looks at how physical changes in the brain or body affect emotions, cognition, and actions. It’s often used to understand how biological factors like hormones, brain injuries, or genetic disorders influence psychological functions. Social Psychology: This branch examines how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the people around them. It studies topics like group behavior, social influence, prejudice, and interpersonal relationships, exploring how society impacts individual behavior. Abnormal Psychology: Focuses on understanding mental disorders and abnormal behaviors, including conditions like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. It explores their causes, symptoms, and treatments, helping us better understand mental health issues and how to provide care for individuals affected by them. Comparative Psychology: Compares the behavior of humans with that of animals, often in the context of evolution. By studying animals, psychologists learn about human behavior, including instincts, learning patterns, and social behaviors, and how these may be rooted in biology. Differential Psychology: This branch looks at individual differences in traits like intelligence, personality, and abilities. It explores why people vary in their cognitive abilities, behavior, and emotions, and how these differences impact learning and interaction in society. Educational Psychology: Studies how people learn and how educational settings can be improved. It looks at teaching methods, learning processes, and student development, aiming to find effective ways to teach and support students in achieving academic success. Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes like memory, attention, problem-solving, and language. It studies how we process information, make decisions, and solve problems, helping to understand how the mind works when dealing with complex tasks. Industrial Psychology: This field applies psychological principles to the workplace, aiming to improve productivity, employee well-being, and job satisfaction. It involves recruitment, training, performance evaluation, and understanding worker behavior. Engineering Psychology: Focuses on how people interact with machines, tools, and technology. It seeks to improve the design of systems, equipment, and environments to enhance user performance, safety, and comfort. Commercial Psychology: Studies consumer behavior, including how people make purchasing decisions and what influences their choices. It helps businesses in marketing strategies, product development, and customer service. Administrative Psychology: Deals with the psychological factors that affect work performance, leadership, and organizational behavior. It is used to improve management practices, organizational structure, and employee motivation. Military Psychology: Applies psychology to military settings, focusing on improving recruitment, training, and performance of soldiers. It also deals with the mental health of soldiers and the psychological effects of warfare. Criminal Psychology: Studies the behavior and thought processes of criminals. It is used in criminal investigations and legal settings to understand criminal behavior, help with rehabilitation, and improve law enforcement strategies. Psychological Counseling (Guidance): Provides support for individuals dealing with personal, social, or psychological challenges. Counselors help clients work through mental health issues, relationship problems, or life transitions. Environmental Psychology: Examines how physical environments affect people's behavior, emotions, and well-being. This branch is used to design spaces that promote productivity, comfort, and mental health, such as in workplaces, homes, or schools. Family Psychology: Focuses on the dynamics within families, including relationships, communication, and emotional issues. It aims to improve family functioning, resolve conflicts, and address problems like parenting challenges or family crises. Clinical Psychology: Deals with diagnosing and treating mental health disorders. Clinical psychologists work with individuals who have psychological conditions like anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia, providing therapy and other treatments. Psychometrics (Psychological Measurement): Involves the design, development, and application of tests and assessments to measure psychological traits like intelligence, personality, and abilities. This field helps ensure that psychological assessments are accurate and reliable. 5. Relationship Between Psychology and Other Sciences 1. Psychology and Physiology: ○ Psychology studies the effects of mental states on the body (e.g., emotions affecting physical health). 2. Psychology and Sociology: ○ Psychology studies individuals, while sociology focuses on groups and society. ○ Both help understand behaviors like family dynamics and social roles. 3. Psychology and Development: ○ Development refers to changes in a person’s physical, mental, emotional, and social traits from birth to death. Psychology and biology are deeply interconnected, especially in areas such as neuropsychology, which studies how the brain and nervous system influence behavior. Psychologists look at how biological processes like hormones, brain function, and genetics impact psychological states and behaviors.