Psychology Study Guide Simplified PDF

Definition of Psychology: A science that describes and explains how we think, feel, and act. (The science of behavior and mental processes) Brief history of the field of Psychology: John Locke: Tableau Rassa or Blank slate (1600’s) Willhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920): - University of Le...

Definition of Psychology: A science that describes and explains how we think, feel, and act. (The science of behavior and mental processes) Brief history of the field of Psychology: John Locke: Tableau Rassa or Blank slate (1600’s) Willhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920): - University of Leipzig. - Defined Psychology as the “Science of Mental Life. - Conducted the first Psychological experiment in 1879. - Marks the “birth” of Psychology as a science. Structuralism - Edward Titchener: - Mentored by Wundt. - Relied on “self-report” data. - Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli. - Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure. Functionalism - William James (1842 - 1910) - Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: “What function might they serve?” and “How might they have helped our ancestors survive?” - Authored principles of Psychology. - Admitted Mary Calkins to his graduate seminar at Harvard who later became the first female president of the APA. - “All men in his class left because of the woman” (1890) Margaret Washburn (1871 - 1939) - First woman to receive a Psychology Ph.D. - Synthesized animal behavior research in her book “The Animal Mind” (1908). Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) - Argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies. - Evolutionary process of natural selection: Selects traits that best helps an organism survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory: Emphasized the power of the unconscious mind and the influence of early childhood experiences on behavior and personality as well as the power of sexual aggressive drives and used dream analysis - He was a Cocaine Addict. - First psychiatrist as well as first comprehensive theory. - Believed personality formed by age 5. Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987) - Humanistic Psychologist that found and believed behaviorism and Freud's theory was too limiting. - Humanistic Psychology: Revived interest in study of mental processes and focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied.  - Person-Centered Therapy: Client leads discussion while the therapist sits and listens without judging or interpreting (Venting to therapist). Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs: - Self-actualization needs. - Self esteem needs. - Love and relationship needs. - Safety needs. - Survival needs. John Watson and B.F. Skinner - Behaviorism (1913): Defined Psychology as the science of observable behavior without reference to mental processes, which became a major force in Psychology well into the 1960’s. - John Watson (Classical conditioning). - B.F. Skinner (Operant conditioning). - Both dismissed introspection and stated that if something cannot be observed, it does not exist. Aaron Beck - Cognitive Psychology: Explores ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered (1960). “Beck’s Cognitive Theory” Chapter 1: The Scientific Method: Process of testing about the world using theories, hypotheses, and research. - Make an observation and ask a question. - Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation. - Make a prediction based on the hypothesis. - Test the prediction - Iterate: use the results to make new hypothesis or predictions Descriptive Research: Describes behaviors, attitudes, or people in general (Systematic). - Case Studies or Surveys. Correlational Research: Examines the statistical relationship between two traits or two behaviors. - No matter how strong correlation is, it does not prove causation. - Positive correlation = (Increase, Increase) or (Decrease, Decrease) = Direct. - Negative correlation = (Increase, Decrease) or (Decrease, Increase) = Inverse. - 3rd variable explanation: Some outside factor that draws two correlations to occur. - Correlated = Correlation study “associated with”, “related to”, “linked with”. Experimental Research: The researcher manipulates one or more factors (Independent Variable) to observe the effect on another factor (Dependent Variable). - Dependent Variable = measured or observed. “Changes are due to the Independent Variable”. - Confounding Variables: Something other than the Independent Variable that might produce an effect.  - Placebo Effect: Involves results caused by expectations alone. - Experiment = Randomly assigned to a control group - Single Blind Experiment: Participants are not aware of which group they are in. - Double Blind Experiment: Eliminates bias by everyone being unaware of what each group contains or represents. The Clarks: Did a study which involved black and white dolls. A choice was given to African American children to choose a doll, which led to a majority of them choosing the white doll over the black doll. Based on these results, the Clarks believed that these children had likely absorbed and internalized anti-black prejudice. Chapter 2: Neurons: Building blocks of the nervous system. - Dendrites: Receives messages from other cells. - Axon: Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. - Myelin Sheath: Covers the Axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses. - Synaptic vesicles: Small, membrane bound spheres that store and release neurotransmitters at the synapse. - Synapse: The space between two cells where nerve impulses are passed from one cell to another. - Glial Cells: Cells that support and maintain nerve cells in place and help them work the way they should. - Axon Terminal: Form junctions with other cells. - Receptor Sites: Proteins typically found on the surface of cells, which are capable of recognizing and bonding to specific molecules. Action Potential: Neural impulse that travels down an axon like a wave. - Occurs in neurons and can also be found in muscle cells. Within neurons, they typically initiate at the axon hillock and propagate down the axon toward the synaptic terminals. - Four types of Stimulation: Mechanical Stimulation = Physical pressure or deformation (touch or vibration). Chemical Stimulation = Binding of neurotransmitters or other chemicals to receptors on the neuron's membrane. Electrical Stimulation = Changes in the electrical environment around the neuron, such as from neighboring neurons. Thermal Stimulation = Changes in temperature that can affect ion channel activity and neuron excitability. - Neuron stimulation causes a brief change in electric charge. If strong enough, this produces depolarization and an action potential. This depolarization produces another action potential a little farther along the axon. As the action potential continues speedily down the axon, the first section has now completely recharged. Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. “Typically excitatory or Inhibitory” (Excitatory = excite or stimulate a receiving neuron to  fire a neural impulse) and (Inhibitory = prevents a receiving neuron from firing a neural impulse). Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure. They are released in response to pain and exercise. Acetylcholine (ACh): Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Dopamine: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Norepinephrine: Helps control alertness and arousal. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): A major inhibitory neurotransmitter, Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. Agonist: Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's actions (Mimics). Antagonist: Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action (Blocks). Part of the Brain and Function: - Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement, posture, and balance. Also aids in judgment of time, sound and texture discrimination, and emotional control. Also helps process and store information outside of awareness. - Brain Stem: extension of spinal cord that includes: Medulla = heartbeat respiration, Pons = movement and sleep, Reticular formation = arousal (daytime and sleep), Thalamus = the sensory switchboard of the brain (relay station). - Limbic System: Linked to emotions, memory, and drives that includes: Amygdala = related to emotions (fear and aggression), Hippocampus = processes conscious, explicit memories for storage, Hypothalamus = partly controls hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, and body temperature. - Cerebral Cortex: Two hemispheres; Each hemisphere has four lobes that include: Frontal lobe = Speaking, planning, judgment, reasoning, self control, manners, and muscle movement (motor cortex). Parietal lobe = process our sense of touch, temperature, movement of body parts (somatosensory cortex). Occipital lobe = Interprets what our eyes are seeing (visual cortex). Temporal lobe = process what our ears actually hear (auditory cortex). Phineas Gage: One afternoon in 1848, Gage was using a tamping iron to pack gunpowder into a rock. A spark ignited the gunpowder, shooting the rod up through his left cheek and out the top of his skull, leaving his frontal lobes damaged - Before incident: Polite, honest, soft spoken, mannerly. - After incident: Rude, dishonest, irritable/temper, profanity. Left hemisphere: Speaking, calculating, language, reading, math, analytical tasks. (Controls right side) Right hemisphere: Visual-spatial tasks, perception, face recognition, expressing emotion, copying drawings, perceiving emotion, perceiving differences. (Controls left side) Corpus Callosum: Right side and left side of brain communicated (bridge). Split brain patient = severed callosum Brain plasticity: reorganization after injury. - Older the person gets = less plasticity. Kaci Caves: Girl who suffered from Rasmussen's syndrome = rare case of epilepsy. Led to doctors removing all of her left hemisphere, only leaving her with the right hemisphere.  - Got rid of Epilepsy, but made it hard for her to speak, control the right side of her body, and less active emotion, more aggressive. Endocrine System: contains glands and fat tissue that secrete another form of chemical messenger, hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, including the brain. When hormones act on the brain, they influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression. - Adrenal Glands: Inner part helps trigger the “Fight or Flight” response. - Pituitary Glands: Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands. Chapter 4: Nature = Genetics Nurture = Environment - Both influence behavior and personality, either through genetics (Nature) or environment (nurture). Twin Studies - Identical Vs Fraternal twins: Identical twins (Same sex, 1 sperm). Fraternal twins (same or opposite sex, 2 sperm). - Studies show that identical twins in adulthood are more alike than fraternal twins in personality traits. - Separated Identical twins = Same genes, but raised in different environments (Nature over nurture). - Criticisms of this study include: Some twins were reunited before testing happened, Raised in the same prenatal environment for 9 months, Similar appearance evokes the same response from others, Identical twins were often places in similar homes, Similarities were so general that any two strangers would have things in common. - Adopted families = Same environment, but different genes (nurture vs nature). - Adoptive parent influences: Adoptive children are more similar to their adoptive parents in terms of religious beliefs, values, manners, attitudes, politics, and habits. Temperament - Person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; apparent from first weeks of life and generally persists into adulthood. - Three types of temperament towards Infants: easy (cheerful, relaxed, predictable), difficult (Intense, irritable, unpredictable, reactive, fidgety), slow-to-warm-up (low activity level, low mood intensity, more withdrawn, low adaptability). - Babies who are held more or touched more develop faster neurologically and gain more weight. - Premature babies who get Kangaroo care sleep better, less stress, and 10 years later, gain better cognitive development. Heritability: The proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes. Epigenetics: influences gene expression. Prenatal environment: first environment for all of us. Conception to birth.  - Parents have significant effects that occur at the extremes (loving homes vs abusive homes). They have more influence on: education and career path, cooperation, self-discipline, responsibility. - Peer influences: similarity, selection effects = pre existing differences. - Shared environmental influences = Same influences that affect a person (school, neighborhood, ect). Chapter 5: Lifespan development: The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues throughout the life span. - Three areas of Development: Physical, Cognitive (Thoughts/thinking, language, intelligence), and social (emotions, relationships, personality). Prenatal Development - Germinal: first two weeks after conception. (Zygote). - Embryonic: End of 2nd week though 8th week after conception. (Embryo). “Organ formation” - Fetal: 9th week until birth (fetus). “Organ functioning/biggest growth spurt” - Full term pregnancy: 38 to 40 weeks (baby). 23rd pair = Sex chromosomes - X, X = Genetic female - X, Y = Genetic male - Men have X sperm (live longer, 72 hours) and Y sperm (faster swimmers due to lightness, not heavy). Teratogen - Anything that can cause a birth effect (Harm). - Most vulnerable during the Embryonic stage due to organ formation. - Teratogens can be: drugs, alcohol, maternal diseases, environmental hazards, diet and nutrition, maternal age, parental factors, incompatible blood types. Federal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) - Physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by pregnant women's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out of proportion head, abnormal facial features, and intellectual disability (Retardation). Piaget - Identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulated global interest in cognitive development. - Development is more continuous than Piaget theorized. Social Development - Infant attachment - Harlow’s contact comfort experiments with monkeys. - Emotional bond or tie with another person. - If separated from caregivers, children display stranger anxiety. Attachment theorist  - Believed a person's attachment styles is perceived by early relationships with primary caregivers. Looked for: Responsiveness, Sensitivity (in touch), and Consistency. Dr. Mary Ainsworth (1979) = Attachment Differences as measured by strange situations. - Secure attachment style (used mom as base for exploration). - Two insecure attachment styles. - Anxious Avoidant = Disengaged, withdrawn, detached. - Anxious Ambivalent = Clingy Parenting styles = Warmth and control - Warmth: Attentive, involved, supported, present, affectionate. (Responsiveness) - Control: Set limits, rules, discipline, and expectations. (demandingness). - Authoritarian: Low warmth, high control. - Authoritative: high warmth, high control. - Permissive/indulgent: high warmth, low control. - Neglectful: low warmth, low control. Kohlberg's level of moral thinking - Preconventional morality: self interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards (before age 9) - Conventional morality: uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order (early adolescence). - Postconventional morality: actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles (adolescence and beyond). Erikson's Psychosocial theory of development - Stages of human development. - 1. Trust vs mistrust (birth - 1 year) - 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1 - 3 year) - 3. Initiative vs guilt (3 - 6 year) - 4. Industry vs Inferiority (Elementary school years) - 5. Identity vs Identity confusion (Teen years) - 6. Intimacy vs Isolation (young adulthood) - 7. Generativity vs stagnation (Midlife adulthood) - 8. Integrity vs despair (Late adulthood) Neurocognitive Disorder (Dementia) - A loss of brain function that affects a person's ability to think, remember, and reason. - Can occur due to a series of small strokes, a brain tumor, or alcohol use disorder. Alzheimer's Disease - A brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually the ability to perform even simple tasks