Psychology Midterm Notes PDF

Exam outline: PART A: FILL IN THE BLANKS (8 Knowledge marks) Topics: 1. Types of glial cells - Neuroglial cells comprise a variety of cell types that support and hold together nervous tissue - “Glia” is Greek for “Glue.” - Neuroglia are not capable of electrical signaling (they...

Exam outline: PART A: FILL IN THE BLANKS (8 Knowledge marks) Topics: 1. Types of glial cells - Neuroglial cells comprise a variety of cell types that support and hold together nervous tissue - “Glia” is Greek for “Glue.” - Neuroglia are not capable of electrical signaling (they do not produce action potentials) but some types - such as Schwann cells - impact the speed and efficiency with which neuron’s electrical signals travel Schwann cells: Oligodendrocytes: - Schwann cells myelinate neurons in - Oligodendrocytes myelinate neurons the peripheral nervous system (PNS) in the central nervous system (CNS) and support nerve repair and do not assist in regeneration. - Location: Found only in the peripheral - Location: Located in the central nervous system (PNS), which includes nervous system (CNS), which includes nerves outside the brain and spinal the brain and spinal cord. cord. - Myelin production: Each - Myelin production: Each Schwann cell oligodendrocyte can extend its wraps around a single segment of an processes to wrap around multiple axon, meaning it takes many Schwann axons in the CNS, so one cells to insulate one axon in the PNS. oligodendrocyte can myelinate several axons at once. 2. The parts of a neuron - Soma, Dendrites, Axon hillock, myelin sheath, axon, nucleus, node of Ranvier, presynaptic bouton PART B: MULTIPLE CHOICE (18 Thinking marks) Key Topics: 1. Neurotransmitters and Synapses Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. - Drugs are used to alter neurotransmission, which are places into categories called antagonists and agonists Agonists: a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action - Some agonists may increase the production of neurotransmitters, or block reuptake in the synapse. - Agonists are often used in medicine to stimulate specific cell responses when the body’s natural signals are insufficient. Antagonists: a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action - Antagonists are often used in medicine to prevent or reduce unwanted physiological effects. Role of the synaptic gap in chemical signaling 2. Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic nervous system: - Controls our glands and our internal organ muscles. It influences functions such as glandular activity, heartbeat, and digestion, it has two subdivisions - The Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses work together to keep us calm Sympathetic responses: Sympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy - If something alarms you, your sympathetic nervous system will accelerate your heartbeat, raise your blood pressure, slow your digestion, raise your blood sugar, and cool you with perspiration, making you alert. Then the parasympathetic nervous system does its job. Parasympathetic responses: Parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calm the body, conserving its energy - When you’re not stressed anymore, your parasympathetic nervous system produces the opposite effects, conserving energy as it calms you. 3. Brain Imaging Technique EEG (Electroencephalogram): - Electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons - Example: Symptoms of depression and anxiety correlate with increased activity in the right frontal lobe, a brain area associated with behavioral withdrawal and negative emotion MEG (Magnetoencephalography): - A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical currents - Ex. Soldiers with posttraumatic stress disorder, compared with those who do not have PTSD, show stronger magnetic fields int he visual cortex when they review the images CT (computed tomography) - X rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage - Ex. Children's brain injuries, shown in CT scans, predict impairments in their intelligence and memory processing PET (Positron emission tomography): - Tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a given task - Monkeys with an anxious temperament have brains that use more glucose in regions related to fear, memory, and expectations of reward and punishment MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging):  - People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure - Ex. People with a history of violence tend to have smaller frontal lobes, especially in regions that aid moral judgment and self- control FMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging): - Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans - Ex. People with a history of violence tend to have smaller frontal lobes, especially in regions that aid moral judgment and self-control DTI: NIRS 4. Brain Structures and Functions Hippocampus: - A seahorse brain structure - It processes conscious memories and decreases in size and function as we grow older - Stores memories - Humans who lose this part also lose their ability to form new memories - Loss of consciousness of concussions can cause the hippocampus to shrink or poor memory Plasticity: the brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience - Our brain is constantly changing - This neural change is called plasticity - Plasticity may occur after serious damage, especially in young children Response to damage - Some of the brains neural tissue can reorganize in response to damage - The brain often attempts to self-repair by reorganizing existing tissue, but it sometimes attempts to mend itself by producing new neurons called neurogenesis. 5. Psychological Experiments and Phenomena A) Rubber hand illusion (body ownership) - The rubber hand illusion is an experiment in which a person can be made to feel that a fake rubber hand is actually part of their body. - This illusion works because the brain combines visual and touch information to create a sense of body ownership, showing how our perception of our body can be easily tricked. - It’s an important insight into how our brains build our sense of self, relying on visual and tactile cues to determine what "belongs" to us. - H1: The strength of the self-reported effect of the rubber hand illusion will be positively correlated with openness to experience. - H0: The strength of the self-reported effect of the rubber hand illusion will not be positively correlated with openness to experience. B) Ego depletion theory and its challenges - Ego depletion is the idea that self-control or willpower is a limited resource that gets used up when you exert a lot of effort trying to resist temptations or make decisions. - The concept of Ego Depletion was first proposed by Baumeister and colleagues in 1998 in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology - Participants asked to skip one meal before the experiment. Asked not to eat three hours prior to the experiment. Two foods were displayed. On the table at which the participant was seated. Asked to taste the assigned food for five minutes while experimenter left the room. - The controversy around ego depletion comes from mixed findings in research. - Early studies supported the idea, but more recent studies have found conflicting evidence - Then, another study was conducted by Keller and kiss C) Phantom limb pain and mirror therapy - The phantom limb phenomenon is when someone who has lost a limb continues to feel sensations—such as itching, tingling, or even pain—in the missing limb, as if it were still there. - This occurs because the brain's "map" of the body doesn't immediately update to reflect the loss. - The sensory areas in the brain that once processed input from the now-missing limb are still active, causing these vivid, lingering sensations. - The phenomenon reveals how our sense of body parts isn’t just based on physical presence but on how the brain interprets sensory information, making it a fascinating insight into how perception works. D) The PT Barnum Effect: - This effect is often seen in horoscopes, fortune telling, and some personality tests. The Barnum Effect occurs because the statements are crafted to be ambiguous and positive, making them easily relatable to most individuals. - For example, a statement like "You have a great need for others to like and admire you, yet you tend to be critical of yourself" might resonate with many people, leading them to feel that the statement is uniquely accurate for them. E) The Solomon Asch Line Conformity Experiment: - Solomon Asch designed an experiment in 1951 to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person’s decisions. - He brought participants into a room with a group of people (who were secretly working with the researcher, known as confederates). - The group was shown a series of cards, each with a line of varying length, and asked to match it to one of three lines on another card. - Asch found that about 75% of participants conformed at least once by giving the wrong answer, even though they clearly knew it was incorrect. - On average, participants conformed to the wrong group answer about one-third of the time. - The experiment highlights the power of social influence and peer pressure. - It shows that people often conform to avoid standing out or feeling embarrassed, even if they know the group is wrong.  - It raises questions about how individuals maintain their independence in a group setting. - Reflect on how often you change your behavior or opinions just to fit in with your peers F) The Big Five Personality Traits 1) Openness to Experience: reflects imagination, curiosity, and creativity. People high in openness enjoy new experiences, abstract thinking, and a variety of activities. - They are imaginative, curious, open-minded, and adventurous - They are not conventional, practical, and they do not prefer routines. 2) Conscientiousness: indicates self-discipline, organization, and goal-directed behaviour. It reflects reliability and a sense of duty. - They are organized, responsible, goal-oriented, detail-focused - They are not careless, impulsive, or unorganized 3) Extraversion: relates to energy levels, sociability, and assertiveness. It measures how outgoing or reversed someone is. - They are sociable, energetic, assertive, and enjoy being around others - They are not reserved, introverted, and they do not prefer solitude. 4) Agreeableness: captures interpersonal behaviours, including kindness, cooperation, and trust. - High scorers are empathetic, kind, and helpful. - Low scorers may be more competitive, skeptical, or critical. 5) Neuroticism: Reflects a person's emotional stability and tendency to experience negative emotions. - High scorers are prone to anxiety, mood swings, and emotional reactivity. - Low scorers are calm, resilient, and less easily upset. 6. Ethics in Research Design Operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. - For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined in a study as participants self-report on a written IQ test (this process is also called operationalization). - a scientist may operationalize “sleep deprivation” in their study as “at least 6 or less hours of sleep.” Random sampling: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. - This is the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.  - Its primary goal is to obtain a representative sample that mirrors the larger population, allowing researchers to generalize their findings to that population Hypotheses: a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. It’s based on prior knowledge or theory and states the relationship between variables. - For example, "Students who get at least 8 hours of sleep will perform better on memory tests than students who get less sleep." This hypothesis predicts an outcome (better performance) based on a condition (getting 8 hours of sleep). - A good hypothesis is clear, focused, and can be tested through research. - The null hypothesis (H₀) is a statement that there is no effect or no difference between groups or variables. It's the default assumption that any observed changes are due to chance. For example, "Sleep has no effect on students' memory recall." - The alternative hypothesis (H₁) is the opposite. It proposes that there is an effect or a difference. It's what the researcher expects to find. For example, "Students who get more sleep will have better memory recall than those who get less sleep." PART C: COMMUNICATION AND APPLICATION (27 marks) Question 1 (11 Communication & Application marks): Research Methodology Read and analyze a study you have never seen before. Topics to focus on: 1. Research methods (e.g., experiments, correlational studies, case studies, etc) - We can test our hypotheses and refine our theories using non-experimental and/or experimental methods. Experimental: manipulation and control of variables. Identify cause and effect. - How? Manipulate 1 + factors, use random assignment. - Manipulation: the independent variable. - Weakness: sometimes not feasible, results may not generalise to other contexts, not ethical to manipulate certain variables. Descriptive/ non experimental: naturalistic observation, survey, case studies, labs. - How? Case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys. - Manipulation: none. - Weakness: no control of variables; single cases misleading. Correlation: statistical analysis of relationships between variables.  - How? Collect data on 2+ variables. - Manipulation: none. - Weakness: cannot specify cause and effect. Naturalistic Observation: observing behaviour in nature without manipulation. Describes behaviour, not explain it. - Wording can have massive effects on peoples expressed opinions. Casual Event: an event that causes another to occur. Moderating Variables: factors that change the strength or direction of the relationship between 2 variables. When or for whom a cause has a stronger or weaker impact. - Ex. Anxiety moderates the relationship between study time and test scores, weakening positive effect of studying. Replication: repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained. 2. Operational definitions (e.g., how is happiness measured in the study?) Operational Definition: describes something so its observable and measurable. - a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. 3. Ethical guidelines in studies Informed Consent: Participants must be fully aware of the nature of the research and agree to participate voluntarily. This includes knowing the purpose, risks, and benefits of the study. Privacy and Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants' personal information and ensure that their identities are kept confidential. This is especially important in sensitive areas of study, like mental health or criminal behavior. Avoiding Harm: Researchers must ensure that participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm during or after the study. If there is any risk of harm, participants must be informed, and precautions must be taken to minimize risk. Debriefing: After the study, participants should be informed about the true purpose of the research, especially if deception was used. Researchers must offer a full explanation and provide any necessary support. Respect for Vulnerable Groups: Special care must be taken when conducting research with vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, or individuals with disabilities. Researchers must ensure that these participants are treated with extra care and respect. 4. Generalizability of research findings 5. Statistical significance and effect-size Effect Size: a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. Statistical Significance: statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. VERY important. Does not say anything about the importance of results. Question 2 (16 Communication & Application marks): Experiment Design ********One of the questions he posted ********** Design an experiment based on research findings you have never seen before. Topics to focus on: 1. Formulating hypotheses Null Hypothesis (H0): allows for a falsifiable statement. No effect, no difference. True until disproven. - Ex. People do not experience positive feelings after touching a dog. Alternative Hypothesis (HA): what you aim to support, there is an effect or difference. - Ex. People feel positive feelings after touching a dog. - Rephrase alternative hypothesis as null hypothesis. 2. Identifying dependent/independent variables Independent Variable: - variable that in manipulated by the researcher to see its effect. - Ex. in a study on sleep the independent variable is 4 hours vs 8 hours. Dependant Variable: - outcome that is measured to see if it changes due to the independent variable. - Ex. test scores after a night of sleep. 3. Justifying study design (e.g., double-blind, placebo-controlled) Experiment Group: group that receives treatment. Control Group: group that does not receive treatment. Placebo Effect: when participants experience changes simply because they believe they are receiving treatment even if the treatment is in active. Positive change. Nocebo Effect: when negative expectations about a treatment cause harmful effect, even though the treatment is inactive. Placebo-controlled study: an experiment where one group receives the actual treatment, and another group receives a placebo (a fake treatment). This helps researchers compare the effects of the real treatment against the placebo to see if the treatment is truly effective. Single Blind Procedure: the participants don’t know whether they are receiving the treatment of a placebo, but the researchers do. Double Blind Procedure: both the researcher and the research staff are unaware about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. No room for bias. 4. Writing detailed experimental procedures Study Topics and Tips Neuroscience Basics Parts of a Neuron: Axon, dendrites, soma, myelin sheath, synaptic gap. Glial Cells: Types and functions (e.g., astrocytes, oligodendrocytes). Key Brain Functions Brain Plasticity: Recovery mechanisms and neural adaptation. Memory Structures: Hippocampus (explicit memory) vs. other regions. Psychological Phenomena Ego Depletion: Critiques and alternative theories. Phantom Limb Therapy: How visual feedback alleviates pain. Rubber Hand Illusion: Multisensory integration and body ownership. Research Design Principles Ethical Considerations: Consent, compensation, minimizing harm. Study Design: Between-subjects vs. within-subjects.