Psychology for Nurses: Second Edition PDF

Psychology for Nurses wired-2.1 Pirated Copy Not Meant For Sale Students Wired Join Here  Psychology for Nurses Second Edition R Sreevani MSc (N) Professor and H...

Psychology for Nurses wired-2.1 Pirated Copy Not Meant For Sale Students Wired Join Here  Psychology for Nurses Second Edition R Sreevani MSc (N) Professor and HOD Department of Mental Health Nursing Sri Devaraj Urs College of Nursing Kolar, Karnataka, India ® JAYPEE BROTHERS MEDICAL PUBLISHERS (P) LTD New Delhi Panama City London Philadelphia (USA)  ® Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd Headquarters Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd 4838/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi 110 002, India Phone: +91-11-43574357 Fax: +91-11-43574314 Email: [email protected] Overseas Offices J.P. Medical Ltd Jaypee-Highlights Medical Publishers Inc. 83 Victoria Street, London City of Knowledge, Bld. 237, Clayton SW1H 0HW (UK) Panama City, Panama Phone: +44-2031708910 Phone: + 507-301-0496 Fax: +02-03-0086180 Fax: + 507-301-0499 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd 17/1-B Babar Road, Block-B, Shaymali Shorakhute, Kathmandu Mohammadpur, Dhaka-1207 Nepal Bangladesh Phone: +00977-9841528578 Mobile: +08801912003485 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.jaypeebrothers.com Website: www.jaypeedigital.com © 2013, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the publisher. Inquiries for bulk sales may be solicited at: [email protected] This book has been published in good faith that the contents provided by the author contained herein are original, and is intended for educational purposes only. While every effort is made to ensure accuracy of information, the publisher and the author specifically disclaim any damage, liability, or loss incurred, directly or indirectly, from the use or application of any of the contents of this work. If not specifically stated, all figures and tables are courtesy of the author. Where appropriate, the readers should consult with a specialist or contact the manufacturer of the drug or device. Psychology for Nurses First Edition: 2009 Second Edition: 2013 ISBN: 978-93-5090-294-3  Foreword to the First Edition It is a matter of immense pleasure that Ms R Sreevani, MSc (N) has again put her efforts together for the student community by compiling a comprehensive textbook titled Psychology for Nurses and requested me to give foreword for the same. Her previous publication A Guide to Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing has been a phenomenal success and gained much recognition with the student community in particular. The present publication broadly covers fundamental psychological concepts for the undergraduate and graduate nurses with special focus on nursing implications making it unique. The text is presented in line with the recently introduced Indian Nursing Council (INC) syllabus for GNM, BSc (N) and PC BSc (N) students. The language used is simple and understandable. Right mix of tables, flow charts and figures has been used to make the concept comprehensible and aid learning. Units on Sensation and Perception, Learning, Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Motivation, Emotions, Attitudes, Personality, Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Guidance and Counseling and Psychological Assessment have been dealt with in depth and incorporated Nursing Implications making it a must-buy for the nursing personnel. I wish her success in all her future endeavors. K Reddemma Professor and HOD Department of Nursing National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) Bengaluru, Karnataka, India  Preface to the Second Edition The first edition of Psychology for Nurses received strong acclaim for its content, approach and organization. While retaining these strengths in the second edition, I have added many more illustrations, figures, flow charts and tables where required. All theoretical aspects and psychological principles are well presented with figures and flow charts. They are immediately followed up with application in nursing practice enabling the students to grasp the concept. Complex topics are also presented very interestingly. After going through this textbook, the students will be able to manage their examinations on psychology and also meet the psychological needs of patients more effectively. The second edition is dramatically different from the first edition as it has been aligned as per the revised Indian Nursing Council (INC) syllabus. In the said process, the textbook has been rewritten and reorganized into nine chapters. Some of the noteworthy changes and highlights are as under: Text Organization Chapter 1–Deals with the history, origin and scope of psychology and also focuses on methods of psychology. Chapter 2–Features the mind-body relationship, influence of heredity and environment on behavior, role of nervous system in behavior. The chapter ends with integrated responses of an organism. Chapter 3–Incorporates a very detailed description of cognitive processes like attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, intelligence and aptitude. Chapter 4–Covers topics on motivation and emotional processes with a special focus on the related theories. It also includes a detailed description of the stress cycle, sources of stress and adaptation to stress. The chapter ends with a topic on behavior and attitude. Chapter 5–Gives a classic account on theories of personality development and ends with alteration and factors influencing personality. Chapter 6–Has been devoted to developmental psychology and psychology of vulnerable individuals. Chapter 7–Deals with mental hygiene and mental health and also focuses on preventive mental health strategies, mental health services available in our country. The chapter ends with a detailed account on guidance and counseling. Chapter 8–Deals with psychological assessment and tests and role of the nurses. Chapter 9–Focuses on types, causes and nursing implications of individual differences. Each chapter is followed by certain important questions culled out from the previous examinations. This will allow the students to get an idea of what is expected out of them. Chapter-wise multiple choice questions (MCQs) have been included at the end of the textbook so as to inculcate an active learning exercise. This book also includes an exhaustive glossary of various terms used in psychology which is a must for gaining a broad understanding of the subject. A list of bibliography has been furnished at the end of the textbook for further reading. Students of general nursing, MSc nursing and other health professionals interested in getting an overview of psychology may also find it useful. All constructive suggestions from the readers in making this book more valuable and helpful will be earnestly solicited. I am confident that the new edition reflects what instructors want and need: a book that motivates students to understand and apply psychology to their own lives. R Sreevani  Preface to the First Edition As per the Indian Nursing Council (INC) syllabus for GNM, BSc (N), PC BSc (N) students, psychology is prescribed as a subject in their academic curriculum. During my teaching experience, I have always found that, though many books have been published on the subject, they do not really cater to the specific needs of the student community, nurses in particular. The students have often sought recommendations for a publication which caters to their complete syllabus. For lack of such a textbook, there was always a high demand for prepared notes which they could use during their examinations. This edition is a genuine effort to mitigate their hardship and also to stimulate academic interest and build an appreciation of the relevance of psychology, motivating and engaging the students. This edition of Psychology for Nurses though will add to the Psychology section in the book shelves, it will definitely be a special one for the nurse community. In this edition a concerted effort has been made to cover the basic principles of psychology and also focus on applied topics in units such as Sensation and Perception, Learning, Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Motivation, Emotions, Attitudes, Personality, Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Guidance and Counseling and Psychological Assessment. The matter has been produced in a simple language with tables, figures and flow charts so as to directly support learning, easy understanding and retention of the concept. Learning new concepts and theories is of no much value unless the same can be put to use in real-life situations. In a unique effort to bridge the gap between theory and practice, special care has been exercised to incorporate Nursing Implications at all appropriate places, providing ample opportunity for the intelligent nurse to conceptualize her role. An exhaustive glossary has been provided at the end of the text to aid the student nurse understand the meaning of the keywords and their usage. To facilitate the students from the examination point of view, a set of review questions—long essays, short essays and short answers type have been included at the end of each unit. To assess the level of understanding gained on various topics, a unit-wise question bank (objective) has been provided at the end of the text. I will be deriving immense satisfaction, if the nursing personnel apply the psychological principles described in this textbook in their day-to-day learning and practice. I am confident that, this book will provide good teaching material for the instructor and moreover motivate the students towards understanding and applying psychology in their job and personal lives as well. Suggestions for improvement will be gratefully acknowledged. R Sreevani  Acknowledgments Deep felt gratitude to: My family which made it all happen. Especially my husband, A Giridhar, who expressed his encouragement and enthusiasm in the project by patiently typing the manuscript and reading through each of the proofs carefully and suggesting valuable additions. My children, Pranith and Daivik, who are the focal point of my life. Dr K Reddemma, Professor and HOD, Department of Nursing, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India, for her suggestions and guidance, and for accepting to give the foreword to the first edition. Ms Prasanthi N, my dear friend, for the abundant support and guidance provided throughout the venture. Her love and encouragement have enthused me and injected the much-needed confidence required in accomplishing the task. All my colleagues, in particular, Mrs Jairakiniaruna, for her valuable suggestions. All the authors, whose books I have referred in the compilation of this text. A word of appreciation for Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman), Mr Ankit Vij (Managing Director) and Mr Tarun Duneja (Director-Publishing) of M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi, India, for making it possible and putting it on the shelf, and also Mr Venugopal (Manager, Bengaluru Branch), for the unstinting moral and material support.  Contents 1. Introduction to Psychology 1 Meaning of Behavior 1 History and Origin of Science of Psychology 1 Definitions of Psychology 3 Scope of Psychology 4 Relevance to Nursing 7 Methods of Psychology 9 2. Biology of Behavior 14 Body-Mind Relationship—Modulation Process in Health and Illness 14 Genetics and Behavior: Heredity and Environment 15 Brain and Behavior: Nervous System, Neurons and Synapse 18 Nervous System 23 3. Cognitive Processes 30 Attention 30 Alterations in Attention (Distraction) 33 Perception 33 Learning 37 Laws of Learning 41 Theories of Learning 42 Transfer of Learning 52 Memory 55 Thinking 65 Intelligence 73 Aptitude 76 Alterations in Cognitive Processes 83 Applications of Nursing Profession 86 4. Motivation and Emotional Processes 92 Needs 92 Drives 93 Incentives 93 Motives 94 Concepts of Motivation 94 Types of Motives 94 Theories of Motivation 96 Motives and Behavior 100 Frustration 100 Conflict 102 Resolution of Frustration and Conflict 103 xiv Psychology for Nurses Emotions and Stress 103 Components of Emotion 103 Changes in Emotional Reactions 105 Theories of Emotion 105 Emotional Adjustments 108 Emotions in Health and Illness 108 Stress 109 Stressors 109 Stress Cycle 110 Effects of Stress 111 Adaptation to Stress 111 Coping with Stress 114 Attitude 116 Characteristics/Nature of Attitude 116 Formation and Development of Attitude 117 Behavior and Attitude 118 Attitudinal Change 119 Factors Affecting Attitudinal Change 119 Psychometric Assessment of Motivation, Emotions and Attitudes 119 Alterations in Emotions during Illness 120 Nursing Implications of Motives 122 Nursing Implications of Emotions 122 Attitude during Health and Illness 123 Nursing Implications of Attitude 123 5. Personality 126 Topography of Personality 126 Types of Personality 126 Theories of Personality Development 128 Psychoanalytic Theory 130 Theory of Psychosocial Development 133 Humanistic Approach 135 Trait and Type Theories of Personality 136 Learning Theories of Personality 137 Psychometric Assessment of Personality 138 Alterations in Personality due to Illness 141 Alterations in Personality due to Personality Disorders 142 Applications 144 6. Developmental Psychology 146 Psychology of People at Different Ages from Infancy to Old Age 146 Psychology of Vulnerable Individuals 152 7. Mental Hygiene and Mental Health 158 Mental Hygiene 158 Mental Health 158 Concepts of Mental Hygiene 158  Contents xv Concepts of Mental Health—Jahoda (1958) 159 Characteristics of a Mentally Healthy Person 159 Warning Signs of Poor Mental Health 160 Promotive and Preventive Mental Health Strategies 160 Mental Health Services 163 Ego Defence Mechanisms and Implications 164 Personal and Social Adjustment 167 Guidance and Counseling 168 Counseling 170 8. Psychological Assessment and Tests 176 Types of Psychological Tests 176 Classification of Psychological Tests 176 Development of Psychological Tests 177 Characteristics of Psychological Tests 177 Principles of Psychological Tests 178 Uses of Psychological Tests 178 Limitations of Psychological Tests 179 Interpretation of Psychological Tests 179 Role of a Nurse in Psychological Assessment 179 9. Individual Differences 180 Meaning of Individual Differences 180 Types of Individual Differences 180 Causes of Individual Differences 181 Individual Differences in Health and Illness 182 Nursing Implications of Individual Differences 182 Glossary183 Question Bank 199 Bibliography219 Index221  CHAPTER Introduction to Psychology 1 INTRODUCTION Psychology is an offspring of subject philosophy. Psychology is a Greek word, ‘psychi’ and ‘logos’. ‘Psychi’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means the ‘study of’ or ‘knowledge’—study of soul. The word soul was used vaguely and there were many interpretations that could be given to it. Later on, William James used the term ‘mind’, which replaced ‘soul’. As years Figure 1.1: Evolution of meaning of psychology went by, the meaning of psychology changed. Those who studied, what was called ‘mind’ found that only the overt behavior, but also the covert behavior they could neither see it nor understand it. Seeing involving all the inner experiences and mental what it did meant they had to study the activities of processes. human beings. The influence of physiology made In a nutshell the term behavior refers to the some scientists like Wilhelm Wundt of Germany entire life activities and experiences of all the living define psychology as the study of ‘consciousness’. organisms (Table 1.1). However, this was also discarded in the course of time and the current definition of psychology, as the HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF SCIENCE OF systematic study of human and animal ‘behavior’ PSYCHOLOGY came to be accepted (Figure 1.1). Psychology as a separate area of study, split away from philosophy a little over 100 years ago. The MEANING OF BEHAVIOR successes of the experimental method in the physical ‘Any manifestation of life is activity’ and behavior sciences encouraged some philosophers to think that is a collective name for these activities. The term mind and behavior could be studied with scientific behavior includes the following: methods. In 1879, the first psychological laboratory  Motor or conative activities (walking, swimming, was established at the University of Leipzig by the dancing, etc.) German philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm  Cognitive activities (thinking, reasoning, imagin­ Wundt (1832 – 1920). Wundt was the first to measure ing). human behavior accurately and is known as the  Affective activities (feeling happy, sad, angry, etc.) ‘Father of Psychology’. Behavior includes not only the conscious William James, Wilhelm Wundt and other behavior and activities of the human mind, but also psychologists of the time thought of psychology as the subconscious and unconscious. It covers not the study of mind. In the first decades of the twentieth 2 Psychology for Nurses century, psychologists came to hold quite different Functionalism views about the nature of mind and the best way to Functionalists such as John Dewey (1873–1954), study it. Schools of thought formed around these James R. Angell (1869–1949) and Harvey Carr psychologists. These schools of thought are known (1873–1954) proposed that psychology should do as the schools of psychology. “what mind and behavior do”. The functionalists performed experiments on the ways in which Structuralism learning, memory, problem solving and motivation This early school of psychology grew up around help people and animals adapt to their environments. the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and was established by one of Wundt’s students, Edward B. Behaviorism Titchener (1867–1927). The goal of the structuralist This school of psychology originated with John was to find the units or elements, which make up B.Watson (1879–1958). He insisted that psychology the mind. The main method used to discover these should be restricted to the study of the activities of elementary units of mind was introspection. people and animals—their behavior. Gestalt Psychology Psychoanalysis This school of psychology was founded in Germany Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud around 1912 by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) (1856–1938). He developed a theory of behavior and and his colleagues. These psychologists felt that mind, which said that much of what we do and think structuralists were wrong in thinking of the mind, as results from urges or drives, which seek expression being made up of elements. They argued that mind in behavior and thought. It is the expression of the could be thought of as resulting from the whole unconscious drives which shows up in behavior pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and and thought. The term unconscious motivation thus organizations within this pattern. describes the key idea of psychoanalysis (Table 1.2). Table 1.1: Major perspectives of psychology Nature Explanation Psychologists with a biological perspective try to relate people’s behavior and mental Biological perspective events (as observed through their behavior) to functions of their bodies-especially to the activity of their nervous and glandular systems From the cognitive perspective, behavior and mind are to be understood in terms of the ways in which information from the environment received through the senses is Cognitive perspective processed. Such processing is the basis of the experience. Differences in the way we process information may lead to differences in behavior Psychologists with a social perspective are interested in the interactions between Social perspective and among people, which influence the mind and behavior Developmental The developmental perspective is concerned with characteristic changes that occur perspective in people, as they mature and change in the way they think The humanistic perspective emphasizes a person’s sense of self and each individual’s attempts to achieve personal competence and self-esteem. The aim of Humanistic perspective humanism is to help each person attain his full potential in life or to become all that he can become The psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) perspective focuses on the unconscious Psychoanalytic motives and defence mechanisms, which manifest themselves in mental life and perspective behavior  Introduction to Psychology 3 Table 1.2: Major landmarks in the development of psychology Year Major landmarks 1879 Wilhelm Wundt inaugurates first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany 1890 Principles of Psychology published by Williams James 1895 Functionalist model formulated 1900 Sigmund Freud develops the psychodynamic perspective 1904 Ivan Pavlov wins Nobel prize for work on fundamental principles of learning 1915 Strong emphasis on intelligence testing 1924 John B.Watson, an early behaviorist, publishes Behaviorism Carl Rogers publishes Client-Centered Therapy, helping to establish the humanistic 1951 perspective 1953 B.F.Skinner publishes Science and Human Behavior, advocating the behavioral perspective Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and Personality, developing the concept of self- 1954 actualization Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, producing a major impact on 1957 social psychology 1985 Increasing emphasis on cognitive perspective 1990 Greater emphasis on multiculturalism and diversity 2000 New subfields develop such as clinical neuropsychology and evolutionary psychology Except for the modern version of behaviorism and DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY psychoanalysis, the old schools of psychology are Psychology is the science of human and animal no more in existence. Psychology today is practiced behavior; it includes the application of behavioral as a blend of various methods. A modern day science to human problems. psychologist leans towards using one of the methods Psychology is the science of human behavior. more than the other, but depends on all that has been (Walter Bowers Pillsbury—1911) developed in the past. Various viewpoints about Psychology is a science, which aims to give us better what is important in understanding mental life and understanding and control of the behavior of the behavior, characterize the present outlook. Among organism as a whole. these perspectives are the behavioral, biological, (William McDoughall—1949) cognitive, social, developmental, humanistic and Psychology is a science and the properly trained psychoanalytic aspects. psychologist is a scientist or at least a practitioner, Psychology is an independent subject and a who uses scientific methods or information resulting positive science. Psychology is also a biosocial from scientific investigation. science. It has an important relationship with both (NL Munn—1967) biological and social sciences. It may be considered Psychology is the investigation of human and as a link between the two groups. Study of psychology animal behavior and of the mental and physiological is necessary in the field of medicine, nursing and processes associated with the behavior. other areas of human endeavor. (Jackson—1976) 4 Psychology for Nurses SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY and how they behave as members of small and large groups. The scope of a subject can usually be discussed  It employs to all the living creatures created by under the following two headings: the almighty irrespective of their species, caste,  The limits of its operations and applications. color, age, sex, mental or physical state. Thus  The branches, topics and subject matter with normal, abnormal, children, adolescents, youth, which it deals. adults, old persons, criminals, patients, workers, The field of operation and applications of the subject officials, students, teachers, parents, consumers, psychology is too vast. etc. all are studied in the subject psychology.  It studies, describes and explains the behavior of  It also studies the behavior of the animals, living organisms. insects, birds and plant life.  It describes all types of life activities and experi­ ences—whether conative, cognitive or affective, No limit can be imposed upon the scope of sub­ implicit or explicit, conscious, unconscious and ject psychology. It has many branches, fields and sub­ subconscious of a living organism. fields (Table 1.3). For convenience, it may be broadly  It studies not only human behavior, but also divided into pure and applied psychology (Figure 1.2). human experience, language and other forms of Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. communication. Psychologists are interested in It deals with the formulation of psychological prin­ individual differences, either they be genetically ciples and theories. It suggests various methods and determined or occurring as a result of learning. techniques for the analysis, assessment, modification They study how individuals and society interact and improvement of behavior. Figure 1.2: Branches of psychology  Introduction to Psychology 5 In applied psychology, the theory generated Abnormal Psychology through pure psychology finds its practical shape. Abnormal psychology deals with the behavior Here we discuss ways and means of the applications of individuals who are unusual. It studies mental of psychological rules, principles, theories and disorders, their causes and treatment. techniques with reference to the real practical life situations. Social Psychology Branches of Pure Psychology Social psychology deals with the group behavior and interrelationships of people with other people General Psychology (how an individual is influenced by others and how General psychology deals with the fundamental an individual influences others behavior). It studies rules, principles and theories of psychology in various types of group phenomena such as public relation to the study of behavior of a normal adult. opinion, attitudes, beliefs and crowd behavior. Social Table 1.3: Major subfields of psychology Subfield Description Biopsychology examines how biological structures and functions of the body affect Biopsychology behavior Clinical Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, neuropsychology focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes Counseling Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment psychology problems Cross-cultural Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological psychology functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their Environmental physical environment, including how our physical environment affects our emotions psychology and the amount of stress, we experience in a particular setting Evolutionary Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic psychology inheritance from our ancestors Experimental Experimental psychology studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning and psychology thinking about the world Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues, such as deciding on criteria for Forensic psychology determining whether a defendant was legally sane at the time a crime was committed Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and Health psychology physical ailments or disease Personality Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior overtime and psychology the traits that differentiate one person from another School psychology is devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary School psychology schools, who have academic or emotional problems Sport psychology Sport psychology applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise 6 Psychology for Nurses psychologists study the ways in which individuals in educational situations. The subject matter of this are affected by other people. branch covers psychological ways and means of im­ proving all aspects of the teaching/learning process. Physiological Psychology Educational psychologists are most often involved in This branch of psychology describes and explains the increase in efficiency of learning in schools by the biological and physiological basis of behavior. It applying psychological knowledge about learning concerns the structure and functions of sense organs, and motivation. nervous system, muscles and glands underlying all behavior. It emphasizes on the influence of bodily Clinical Psychology factors on human behavior. This is the largest subfield of psychology. This branch of applied psychology describes the causes Parapsychology of mental illness, abnormal behavior of a patient and Parapsychology deals with extra-sensory perceptions, suggests treatment and effective adjustment of the causes of rebirth, telepathy and allied problems. affected person in society. Geopsychology Industrial Psychology This branch of psychology describes and explains This branch of applied psychology tries to seek the relation of physical environment particularly application of the psychological principles, theories weather, climate and soil with behavior. and techniques for the study of human behavior in relation to industrial environment. Industrial Developmental Psychology psychologists apply psychological principles to assist public and private organizations with their This branch of psychology describes the processes hiring and placement programs, the training and and factors that influence the growth and development supervision of their personnel and the improvement in relation to the behavior of an individual from birth of communication within the organization. They also to old age. It is further subdivided into branches counsel employees within the organization, who like child psychology, adolescent, adult and old need help with their personal problems. age psychology. Development psychologists try to understand complex behaviors by studying their Legal Psychology beginning and the orderly ways in which they change or develop over the lifespan. Legal psychology is a branch of applied psychology, which tries to study the behavior of persons like Experimental Psychology clients, criminals, witnesses, etc. with the help of applications of psychological principles and This branch of psychology studies the ways and techniques. The root cause of crime, offence, dispute means of carrying out psychological experiments or any legal case can be properly understood through by using scientific methods. Experimental psycholo­ the use of this branch of psychology. gists do basic research in an effort to discover and understand the fundamental and general causes of Military Psychology behavior. They study basic processes such as learn­ ing, memory, sensation, perception and motivation. This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological principles and techniques in Branches of Applied Psychology military science. How to keep the morale of the soldiers and citizens high during war time, how to Educational Psychology secure better recruitment of the personnel for the Educational psychology is a branch of applied psy­ fighting capacities and organizational climate and chology, which tries to apply the psychological prin­ leadership, etc. are the various topics that are dealt ciples, theories and techniques to human behavior with in this branch of psychology.  Introduction to Psychology 7 Political Psychology This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains. Applications of Psychology In the Field of Education Theories of learning, motivation and personality, etc. have been responsible for shaping and designing the educational system according to the needs and requirements of the students. The application of psychology in the field of education has helped the learners to learn, the teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational planners to plan effectively and efficiently. Figure 1.3: Application of psychology in various fields In the Field of Medicine In the Field of Military Science A doctor, nurse or any person who attends the patient, needs to know the science of behavior to Psychology helps in the selection, training, promotion achieve good results. Psychology has contributed and classification of defense personnel. In fighting valuable therapeutic measures like behavior therapy, the enemy, the morale of the defense personnel and play therapy, group therapy, psychoanalysis, etc. for of citizens must at all costs be high and this can only the diagnosis and cure of patients suffering from be achieved by providing suggestions, insight and psychosomatic, as well as mental diseases. confidence. In the Field of Business and Industry In the Field of Human Relationship and Self-Development It has highlighted the importance of knowledge of Finally it has helped human beings to learn the consumer’s psychology and harmonious interpersonal art of understanding their own behavior, seeking relationship in the field of commerce and industry. adjustment with their self and others and enhancing, as well as actualizing their potentialities to the utmost In the Field of Criminology possible (Figure 1.3). It has helped in detection of crimes and in dealing with criminals. RELEVANCE TO NURSING In the Field of Politics Psychology has become necessary in every profession including nursing today. This is because of increasing It has proved useful to the politicians and leaders emphasis being laid out on the interplay of body, mind to learn the qualities of leadership for leading the and spirit in the health status of every individual. masses. The success in life of many people depends on how they get along with others, influence others and In the Filed of Guidance and Counseling react to others. The ability to understand ourselves It has provided valuable help in relation to guidance and others comes from a wise study of psychology. and counseling in educational, personal as well as The learning of psychology helps a nurse in the vocational areas. following ways: 8 Psychology for Nurses To Understand Her Own Self The knowledge of psychology helps the nurses in The knowledge of psychology will help the nurse to recognizing mental illnesses at general hospitals and get an insight into her own motives, desires, emotions, community health centers and provide appropriate feelings, attitudes, personality characteristics and guidance to deal with stress, anxiety and other life ambitions. She will realize how her personality problems. is highly individualistic and complex, arrives at decisions in her life and solves her own problems. To Understand Other People This knowledge also helps her to understand her The student nurse has to study, work and live with strengths and weaknesses. By knowing these aspects, other nurses, doctors, patients and their family mem­ she can not only try to overcome such weaknesses, bers. With her scientific knowledge of human nature, which affect her work, but also develop good she will understand them better and thus achieve personality characteristics, abilities to carry on her greater success in interpersonal relationships. She responsibilities and perform her duties effectively will learn why others differ from her in their likes and efficiently. This will let her direct her own and dislikes, in their interests and abilities or in their life more productively and relate more easily with reactions to others. She will realize how differences others, enabling her to control situations and attain in behavior to some extent, are due to differences in self-discipline. customs and beliefs or cultural patterns of the groups to which she belongs or to the way she has been To Understand Patients brought up during her early years. The nurses are professionals meant for providing To Provide Quality Care to Patients care to patients. The patient may be suffering from acute or chronic disease; may be male or female, A nurse with good knowledge of human psychology young or old and come to the hospital with so many can understand what fears or anxieties the patient physical and psychological problems. They may also faces, what he feels, what he would like to know have tensions, worries, pains and also many doubts and why he behaves the way he does. It will help about their illness. The knowledge of psychology will the nurse to anticipate and meet requirements of help the nurse to understand the problems and needs the patients and his relatives, thus help patients and of patients and attend to them. She can understand relatives adjust to the unavoidable circumstances in the motives, attitudes, perceptions and personality the best possible way. A good understanding of these characteristics of patients in a better way. This will patients by the nurse can be of best support to him. help the patient to attain quick relief and cure, which is the basic motto of a nurse. Help Patients Adjust to the Situation Illness and physical handicaps often bring about the To Recognize Abnormal Behavior need for major adjustments. Many diseases such as Psychology is relevant not only in physical health heart disease and cancer, etc. require special coping care, but also highly relevant in the field of mental skills and health care. A nurse trained in psychology health. Presently more and more people are suffering can be an effective health educator and help in these from mental illness. While some patients may have kind of adjustments. minor problems, others suffer with serious illness. The knowledge of psychology will help nurses to Help the Student Nurse to Appreciate understand abnormal behaviors and help the patient the Necessity for Changing the in management of mental illnesses. Nurses working Environment or Surroundings in mental hospitals definitely need an adequate Good nursing care depends upon the ability of a knowledge of normal and abnormal psychology. nurse to understand the situations properly and  Introduction to Psychology 9 also in obtaining the cooperation of other people different problems both physical and mental. To concerned. The change in the environment is serve them satisfactorily, knowledge of psychology sometimes necessary for better adjustment and is quite essential. happiness. For example, a boy who is completely denied the affectionate care of his parents may do METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY better if he is given the care of foster parents. Psychology is termed as the scientific study of human Help for Effective Studying behavior. Special tools and procedures help us in gathering and organizing its subject matter or the The nurse has to learn many new things during her essential facts about behavior. These procedures are training. She has to obtain the knowledge of correct termed as methods, which are used to study human facts about disease conditions and their treatment. behavior (Figure 1.4). They are as under: The study of psychology of learning will help the nurse to acquire knowledge in an effective way. Introspection or Self-observation Readjustment Method Every profession and career requires readjustment. This is one of the oldest methods of psychology. A nurse needs to make the following kinds of Introspection means ‘to look within’. This is also adjustments for success in the nursing career: known as self-observation method. It is not possible  Overcoming homesickness and self-reliance is to understand the inner feelings and experiences needed if she has to live smoothly in a hostel or a of other persons. Here the subject is asked to hospital. systematically observe his own behavior and  Adjusting to sick persons, who may cry or be report the same; this is later analyzed to understand desperate or even ventilate their anger by making behavior. For example, a patient after an operation the nurse a target of their abuses and curses. may be asked to report how he feels. The patient will  Trying to work and study together. try to look within and recall what happened and how In these efforts knowledge of psychology can be he is presently feeling. This information will help for helpful, as an insight into the emotions will clear lots better treatment. This is the characteristic method of of problems. The well-being of a patient is the prime psychology, which is not available to other natural responsibility of a nurse. She must not only treat him sciences. physically, but also instill confidence in his capacity to improve and recover fully. For this, knowledge Merits of human psychology is essential. The physical and  Introspection is the fundamental method of mental well-being of a patient mainly depends on the psychology. Observation and experimentation nurse. She has to deal with different people having are based upon introspection. Figure 1.4: Methods of psychology 10 Psychology for Nurses  Introspection gives us direct, immediate and Merits exact knowledge of our own mental processes.  It is economical, natural, as well as flexible.  It enables us to fully understand the behavior of  The data, which is studied through observation an individual. can be analyzed, measured, classified and inter­  This method is inexpensive, easy and does not preted. require any apparatus or laboratory.  The results can be verified and relied.  Observation method is quite suitable for observ­ Demerits ing developmental characteristics like children’s  This method is not applicable for children or habits and interests. For example, the effect of animals or mentally retarded people, because absence of a mother or father or both on the they cannot introspect. child’s development can be determined properly  It is a purely private affair and cannot be verified through observing the development of such de­ by other observers. prived children.  In many cases, the patients may not have the insight to know about their conditions or Demerits language to describe them accurately.  Introspection sometimes involves attention to a  There are chances of subjective report and also mental process (Example: perception), which is prejudices of observer may creep in. produced by an external object. When we attend  Sometimes to observe the natural behavior the to the mental process, we withdraw attention from observer may have to spend more time, energy the object and as soon as we withdraw attention and money. from the object the mental process vanishes, thus  It lacks repeatability, as each natural situation making introspection impossible. can occur only once. All the difficulties of introspection can be  Not being able to establish a proper cause-and- overcome by habit and discipline of mind. It requires effect relationship. a power of abstraction and mental alertness. The difficulties of observation method are over­ come by cultivating an impartial attitude of mind, by Observational Method constructive imagination and cautious observation. Observation is the objective method of studying the behavior of individuals. It consists of, perception of Experimental Method an individual’s behavior under natural conditions Experimental method is considered as the most by the other individuals and the interpretation and scientific and objective method of studying analyzes of this perceived behavior by them. It is behavior. The word experiment comes from a Latin essentially a way of perceiving the behavior as it is. word meaning ‘to try’, ‘put to test’. Therefore, in In this method the observer observes and collects experimentation we try or put to test the material or the data. Example, in the hospital the nurse makes phenomenon, the characteristics of consequences of an observation of patient’s temperature, pulse, blood which we wish to ascertain. The use of this method pressure, facial expressions, restlessness, etc. to has raised psychology to the status of an experimental understand clinical condition of the patient. science like physics, chemistry and physiology. In psychology, experimental study is used to Steps in Observation Method study the cause-and-effect relationship regarding the  Observation of behavior nature of human behavior, i.e. the effect of anxiety  Noting of behavior on the human behavior. To study the cause-and-  Interpretation and analysis of behavior effect relationship the psychologists use objective  Generalization observations under controlled conditions to observe  Introduction to Psychology 11 actions or behaviors of individuals. From these  Testing of the hypothesis by the result of observations certain conclusions are drawn and experiment: The results may prove or disprove theories or principles established. the hypothesis. The various steps involved in experimental Essential Features of Experimental Method method have been depicted by way of a flow chart  Requires two persons, the experimenter and the (Figure 1.5). subject or the person, whose behavior is observed.  Experimentation should be done on living Merits organisms.  Scientific method  All experiments are conducted under controlled  Finds out cause and effect relationship conditions.  Maximum control of phenomena  Repetition is possible Steps in Experimentation  Stating the problem: The first step in an Demerits experiment is stating the problem. For example, to study the effects of smoking on physical and  All problems of psychology cannot be studied by mental health of students. this method, as we cannot perform experiments  Formulation of hypothesis: Hypothesis is a for all the problems. tentative answer to the problem. For the above  Experimental method is a costly and time example, the hypothesis can be–smoking is consuming method. Moreover handling of this harmful for physical and mental health of method demands specialized knowledge and students. This hypothesis will be tested. skill. In the absence of such expertise this method  To find out independent and dependent variables: is not functional. The effect of which we want to study will be called independent variable and the other the dependent variable. The independent variable stands for the cause and dependent variable is characterized as the effect of the cause. In the above example physical and mental health will be dependent variables and smoking will be an independent variable.  Arranging the environment: Under controlled environment the variables are objectively ob­ served. For example, physical and mental health of students (who are smoking) will be observed. In experimentation, it is important that only the spec­ ified independent variables be allowed to change. Factors other than the independent variable must be held constant.  Analysis of the results: Generally the subjects of the experiment are divided into two groups, one controlled and the other experimental. They can be compared statistically. For example, smoker’s and non-smokers mental and physical health can Figure 1.5: Various steps of experimental method be compared. 12 Psychology for Nurses  Experimental method fails to study behavior in Survey Method naturalistic conditions. All problems in psychology cannot be studied by  It cannot always be used especially if the the experimental and other methods. Some problems experiment might be dangerous to the subjects. like study of opinions, attitudes, health care needs, In spite of various limitations it is a fact that, etc. can be studied by means of survey method. This the results obtained by experimental method are is commonly employed in social psychology. reliable, verifiable, definite, precise and capable of The survey method involves collection or gather­ quantitative treatment than those obtained by the use ing of information from a large number of people by of other methods. using questionnaires, inventories, checklists, rating scales and interviews. Clinical or Case History Method This method is used by clinical psychologists, Merit psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers in child A large amount of data can be collected in a shorter guidance clinics or mental hygiene clinics and the time. allied institutions. It aims at studying the cause and basis of people’s anxieties, fears and personal Demerit maladjustments. A great deal of relevant data is The behavior is not observed directly. collected by using case histories, interviews, home visits and psychological tests to draw valid inferences Genetic or Developmental Method about the nature of the individual’s difficulties and problems, the probable origin and course of Psychologists study not only the behavior of development. This may suggest some course of an individual at a particular time, but also his action to be pursued in helping the individual. development from birth to death, the influence of In this technique information is collected from heredity and environment in the development of the the memory of the individual, his parents, members person and conditions favorable and unfavorable of his family, friends, teachers and all other available for normal and abnormal behavior. For example, records and reports. The information includes the to understand the learning behavior of an adult, the past history of the disease, treatment already taken, study will start from the childhood and adolescence. changes if any like improvement, present condition, This can be done by two ways: probable causes, signs and symptoms, etc.  Cross-sectional study in which, the children of different age groups will be studied simultane­ Merits ously.  Longitudinal study in which, the same child will  Case histories will give the clinician an insight be studied in different stages of life. into the causes of the problem and suggest possible solutions. Merits  Case studies can be productive sources of ideas for further investigation by other methods. This is a more useful method to understand the behavior from point of view of hereditary and Demerits environmental influences. The case history method depends largely on memory Demerit of incidents, which may have been observed inac­ curately or over interpreted. This method requires more time and energy.  Introduction to Psychology 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS 6. Explain case study method. (Aug 2009) 7. Explain the relevance of psychology to nursing. (Aug 2009) Long Essays 8. Explain experimental method in psychology. (Mar 1. Define psychology and explain in detail the methods 2012, April 2008) in psychology. (Mar 2012) 9. Bring out the similarities and differences between 2. Define psychology. Explain methods of observation introspection and observation. (April 2008) and case study. (Mar 2009) 10. What is the general importance of psychology? 3. Define psychology. Explain its nature and scope Why should a student nurse study psycho­ logy? with reference to nursing. (Mar 2009) (Oct 2007) 4. Discuss various methods of psychology used to 11. Discuss the scope of psychology. (Apr 2006) study the behavior. (Oct 2007) 12. Define psychology. What are the different methods 5. Define psychology and explain its nature and scope used in the study of psychology? (2004) with special reference to nursing. (Mar 2012, Oct 13. Discuss introspection its advantages and limitation 2007, April 2006, 2004, Nov 2003) as a method of psychology. (Nov 2003) 6. Critically examine observation method and experi­ mental method—explain. (April 2005) Short Answers 7. Define psychology. What are the different methods used in the study of psychology. Critically evaluate 1. Write any two definitions of psychology. (Mar 2012) them. (Mar 2004) 2. Child psychology. (Aug 2010) 3. Methods of psychology. (Mar 2009) 4. Define any two branches of psychology. (Mar 2009) Short Essays 5. Case history method. (April 2008) 1. Explain any two branches of psychology. (Mar 2012) 6. List the branches of psychology. (Oct 2007) 2. Scope of psychology in nursing profession. 7. Behavior. (Oct 2007) (Nov 2003) (Mar 2011) 8. Interview method. (Oct 2006) 3. Case study method. (Aug 2010) 9. Experimental method. (April 2005) 4. Relevance of psychology to nursing. (Mar 2009) 10. What is introspection? (2004, Nov 2003) 5. Describe merits and demerits of experimental 11. Observation method. (2004) method. (Mar 2009) 12. Definition of psychology. (Nov 2003)  CHAPTER Biology of Behavior 2 The biology of behavior is the study of behavioral ™™ Body is represented by physical states and bodily functions of the nervous system, particularly the functions. Our nervous system and glands, which brain. ‘Physiological psychology’ is the branch of are an important part of our body are responsible psychology, which seeks to determine how activity for our ways of thinking, feeling and doing. in the nervous system is related to behavior and the ™™ All behaviors have an anatomical and physiolog- mind. ical basis. Physiological structures, body fluids, Many aspects of human behavior and mental chemicals and mechanical events, all influence functioning cannot be fully understood without some both our overt behavior and our feelings and knowledge of the underlying biological processes. experiences. Our mental functions like strong Our nervous system, sense organs, muscles and feelings, emotions, attitudes, motives, thinking, glands enable us to be aware of and adjust to our etc. influence our bodily activities and processes. environment. Our perception of events depends on ™™ Emotions are combination of bodily responses how our sense organs detect stimuli and how our and mental processes. Body provides energy brain interprets information originating from the to fight or cope; mind contributes to the senses. understanding, to offer an explanation for ones own actions or the actions of others. Just as BODY-MIND RELATIONSHIP— the body produces epinephrine to fight danger, MODULATION PROCESS IN HEALTH the mind helps to decide, whether it is needed AND ILLNESS or not. ™™ Psychology studies human behavior, which Effects of Bodily Conditions on Mental involves both the body and the mind. They are Functioning interrelated and interact upon each other. Mental functions and physical states affect each other. ™™ Increased blood pressure causes mental excite- ™™ Body and the mind are two aspects of the living, ment. dynamic and adjusting personality. Mind is ™™ Severe pain reduces the concentration level. regarded as a function of the body; it does not ™™ Chronic illness causes depression. exist apart from the body. It is the sum total of ™™ Malfunctioning of the endocrine glands may various mental processes such as observing, exert full influence on one’s personality, resulting knowing, thinking, reasoning, feeling, imagining, in lethargy, nervous tension, etc. remembering, judging, etc. Mind also grows just ™™ Physical fatigue affects our mood and reduces as the body grows. our motivation, interest and concentration.  Biology of Behavior 15 ™™ Brain injury affects many psychological func- GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR: tions. At the same time well developed brain HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT leads to the development of better intellectual functioning. Heredity Heredity is considered as “the sum total of inborn Effects of Mental Conditions on Bodily individual traits”. Biologically, it has been defined Functioning as “the sum total of traits potentially present in the ™™ Unpleasant emotions like fear, anger and worry fertilized ovum”. According to Douglas and Holland cause irritability, insomnia, headache, etc. “one’s heredity consists of all the structures, physical Mental processes are intimately connected to characteristics, functions or capacities derived from brain or cortical processes, e.g. depression affects parents, other ancestry or species”. thinking and memory. All organisms possess a life cycle, which in- ™™ Emotional conflicts are responsible for peptic cludes growth, development, reproduction and de- ulcer, ulcerative colitis, etc. cline. Though there is essential unity in life, the ways ™™ Deep thinking and concentration can cause by which each organism exercises its capacities are physical strain. different. These individual qualities of organisms ™™ According to Franz Alexander, repressed feel- and their basic properties are transmitted by means ings of hostility and aggression are expressed of heredity. through the nervous system and cause hyperten- Mechanism of Heredity sion and cardiac diseases. Repressed feelings of dependency, wish to receive love, affect para- The life cycle of an individual begins with the fusion sympathetic nervous system resulting in gastro- of a sperm and ovum. The origin of every human life intestinal disorders or respiratory disorders. can be traced to a single cell called zygote. When ™™ Unconscious motivation and conflicts gives a sperm unites with an ovum, zygote is produced. rise to many physical complaints and neurotic The genes, which are the carriers of distinctive traits disorders like conversion disorders. are present both in the sperm and the ovum. In the Relationship between body and the mind has fertilized ovum, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, an effect on health and illness. If the relationship half of which are given by the father and the other is harmonious, it leads to health, while an adverse half by the mother. While females have 23 pairs of XX chromosomes, males have 22 pairs of relationship leads to illness. If all the body and XX chromosomes plus two single chromosomes mental processes are working within normal range, represented by X and Y. The X and Y are called as the individual will have good health. Disruption in sex chromosomes. any one of the processes will lead to illness. Occasionally, through some unfortunate bodily Psychosomatic medicine deals with physical error, aberrations in chromosomes appears. If an diseases caused by psychological factors. In these extra chromosome appears making the total 47 patients, the treatment should be given for both body rather than the normal 46, mongolism (Down’s and mind, e.g. in case of peptic ulcer the treatment syndrome or trisomy 21 anomaly) results. A child includes both drugs and psychotherapy. with Mongolism suffers from deceleration of growth The nurse should understand the interrelationship during the prenatal period, which results in a highly between the body and the mind. She should also complex, multidimensional disorder, in which every understand the emotional factors underlining the organ is involved. disease of the patient. It is always necessary to study When chromosomes are studied under a micro- the patient’s physical and psychological problems in scope, bands of markings appear, representing an order to provide comprehensive care. entity called genes, which appear to be the actual de- 16 Psychology for Nurses terminers of traits. Each chromosome is made up of introduction of completely new traits in the next many genes. Man has probably not less than 2,000 generation. Such changes are called mutations. and not more than 50,000 genes in the chromosomes. Mutant plants and animals might have characteristics Each gene is the determiner of a specific character- that breeders can use to improve existing varieties. istic, such as straight nose or a deep lobed ear. At In human beings, mutations are almost always present, it appears that, there is no simple one-to-one undesirable. Their causes are not clear, but are known relationship between genes and traits, i.e. one gene to be induced by atomic radiation. may influence many characteristics or traits or con- Heredity is the basis for the development of versely many genes may combine to determine one human personality. It is like the raw material in the characteristic. hands of the artist, out of which the potter or tailor Action of the genes on the cytoplasm changes prepare the specific objects. Any amount of molding the shape and other characteristics of the cells. The and treatment with special processes will still retain heredity basis of individual differences lies in the the basic properties of the raw material. unlimited variety of possible gene combinations Many aspects of human behavior and develop- that can occur. No two siblings get an identical ment range from physical characteristics such as heredity, as they do not get the same genes from height, weight, eye and skin color. The complex the parents. Fraternal or dizygotic twins born to the patterns of social and intellectual behavior are in- same parents are different from each other, because fluenced by person’s genetic endowment. They of different pairs of germ cells. However, identical also include physical deficiencies and the nature or monozygotic twins develop from the same sperm of glandular functioning. Heredity is a source of and ovum, hence have exactly the same set of genes both similarities and differences among individuals and therefore, resemble each other completely. (Table 2.1). Determination of traits is not only due to combination of genes, but also due to their dominant Table 2.1: Characteristics influenced significantly by or recessive nature. In the color of the eye, e.g. genetic factors brown is dominant over blue, if one parent carries Emotional Physical Intellectual only brown and the other only blue, their offspring characteristics characteristics characteristics will have brown eyes. Many people however, carry and disorders both and if two recessive blues happen to match up Height Memory Shyness in the assorting process of meiosis and fertilization, Weight Intelligence Extraversion the child would have blue eyes even though parents Obesity Age of Emotionality and all the immediate relatives have brown eyes. language Some characteristics are sex linked, i.e. one acquisition sex shows the characteristics, while the other sex Tone of voice Reading Neuroticism not apparently affected is the carrier. One such disability trait is color blindness. For example, the sons of a Blood Mental Schizophrenia color blind man and normal woman do not inherit pressure retardation the defect, but the daughters may be carriers of the Tooth decay Anxiety disorder to another generation of males, their sons. Athletic ability Another example is hemophilia; a bleeding disorder, which rarely occurs in women, but is transmitted by Firmness of handshake them to their sons (Stern, 1960). Age of death Occasionally, in the reproductive cells of any living thing a change occurs, which causes the Activity level  Biology of Behavior 17 Environment surrounded by amniotic fluid and attached to the The child inherits the traits and characteristics of his mother by the umbilical cord. Thus, growth of the parents and forefathers through genes at the time of embryo depends on the nourishment provided by conception. Therefore, what he possesses at the time the mother. The physiological and psychological states of the mother during pregnancy, her habits and of conception is all due to heredity. interests, etc. all influence the development of the After conception, how he develops is the out- child. come of the interaction between his heredity and en- After birth, the child is exposed to the numerous vironment. The forces of environment begin to play environmental forces, which are purely external in their part and influence the growth and development nature. of an individual right from the time of fertilization of the ovum by the sperm. Therefore from the envi- External environment: It can be divided into three ronmental point of view, not only what happens after kinds: birth is important, but what goes on inside the womb  Physical environment of the mother after conception is equally significant.  Biological environment Environment covers the social, moral, economi-  Psychosocial environment cal, political, physical and intellectual factors, which Physical environment: Non-living things like water, influence the development of the individual from air, housing, soil, climate, heat, light, radiation, time to time. noise, etc. form the physical environment. These affect the body and mind of the growing child. So, Definitions it is necessary to provide a decent home and locality The environment is everything that affects the for good physical and mental health of the child. individual except his genes. Biological environment: It refers to the living (Boring, Langfield and Weld) component of man’s external environment, which Environment covers all the outside factors that consists of plants, animals, insects, bacteria and have acted on the individual, since he began life. viruses. It is necessary that the child should be allowed (Woodworth) to grow in a good, healthy biological environment. The child should be kept away from the disease Types of Environment carrying germs, bacteria and viruses. There are three types of environment that affect the individual directly or indirectly: Psychosocial environment: It includes cultural val- ues, customs, habits, beliefs, attitudes, morals,  Intercellular environment religion, education, occupation, social and political  Intrauterine environment organization, etc. Parents, members of the family,  External environment friends, classmates, neighbors, teachers, mass com- Intercellular environment: It relates to embryonic munication and recreation are also included in this development. The cytoplasm is in the intercellular environment. These different environmental forces environment, because the genes surrounded by it are have a desirable impact upon the physical, social, influenced by and in turn influence its characteristics. emotional, intellectual, moral and aesthetic develop- Endocrine glands and hormones also produce ment of an individual. Their influence is a continu- intercellular influence. Many congenital deformities ous one, which begins with the emergence of life and are the result of overactive or underactive endocrine goes on till death. function. One example of the influence of environment upon potential height is found among the first and Intrauterine environment: It shelters the baby during second generations of Japanese people in the United prenatal life. In the womb the growing organism is States (US). The children are generally taller than 18 Psychology for Nurses their parents, because they have had the advantages interaction of heredity and the environment. Within of better food and better living conditions. Another this interaction, our genetic endowment for many example is the children of third world countries characteristics provides us with a reaction range of whose growth and development have been stunted possible levels that we may ultimately reach depending by drought and famine. As food becomes available, on the quality of our experience in the environment. many of these children show marked improvement Heredity and environment are interdependent forces. in their physical conditions. The influence of heredity and environment are so interrelated that they are practically inseparable. Interaction Between Heredity and The knowledge of the mechanism of heredity Environment and the influence of environment on the personality development is important for a nurse to understand Each individual enters the world with certain the behavior of a patient. hereditary characteristics transmitted to him through his parents. He grows up in a certain environment with its human, social and material surroundings. BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR: NERVOUS Everything he does as a child or adult results from SYSTEM, NEURONS AND SYNAPSE the complex interactions between heredity and ™™ The entire behavior is effectively managed and environment. controlled by the coordination and functioning of ™™ The relative influence of heredity and environ- ment differs from one individual to another and the nervous system. from one human trait or condition to another. ™™ How we will behave in a particular situation ™™ Heredity and environment are interdependent depends upon the judgment of our brain. forces. Inheritance is an important factor in the ™™ The sense impressions, which are received development of the artistic abilities like music. through the sense organs, do not bear any Heredity supplies the potential talent, while significance unless they are given a meaning by favorable environment brings it out. the nervous system. ™™ Heredity and environment are equally important ™™ Learning also to a great extent is controlled by in shaping the temperament of the child. Heredity the nervous system. lays down the essential foundations, while ™™ The proper growth and development of nerve environment can change these foundations for tissues and nervous system as a whole helps in better or worse. the task of proper intellectual development. ™™ Heredity provides the raw material from which ™™ Any defect in the spinal cord or the brain a person is made. How the material is molded, seriously affects the intellectual growth. and what he becomes depends chiefly on the ™™ The emotional behavior is also influenced by environment. Good materials placed in good the nervous system, especially at the time of hands result in a fine finished product. Poor anger, fear and other emotional changes. During material, no matter how carefully fashioned can emotional outbursts, nerve tissues cause the never become a first rate product. change in the secretion of hormones by some ™™ Our inheritance prescribes the limits, beyond glands and consequently influence the emotional which it may not be possible for any individual behavior of an individual. to develop, however wholesome and stimulating ™™ The process of growth and development is the environment may be. also directly and indirectly controlled by the Today no one believes that nature or nurture alone, functioning of the nervous system. completely determines the course of our development. ™™ The personality of an individual is greatly influenced Psychologists agree that development is shaped by the through the mechanism of the nervous system.  Biology of Behavior 19 Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps Internal Receptors us in touch with our environment, both external and Internal receptors are associated with the internal internal. Like other systems in the body, the nervous stimuli present in our body. They are responsible for system is composed of organs, particularly the feelings of pain, hunger or nausea. Another variety brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. These in turn, of these internal receptors helps us in maintaining consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood balance, bodily posture and equilibrium and also and connective tissues. Together these carry out the exercise control over the muscles. complex activities of the nervous system. Human behavior involves the body-mind Sensation interaction of the various bodily factors. The most important are: Most of our behavior is dependent upon what our  The sense organs, called receptors. senses tell us. Vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch  The muscles and endocrine glands, called effectors. are called five senses. The functioning of the five  The nervous system known as the connecting or senses is called sensation. Sensations are purely the integrating mechanism. result of physical stimuli operating on our nervous system. Receptors (Psychology of Sensations) Sensory experience: Each sensory system is a kind Behavior in all its forms and shapes has definitely of a channel, consisting of a sensitive element (the a biological or physiological base. The behavior is receptor). The nerve fibers connect these receptors based on the various stimuli present in the external to the brain or spinal cord, various relay stations and environment and lying within our body. The stimuli processing areas within the brain. When a sensory in the form of various sensory experiences are channel is stimulated, we have a sensation that is received by our sensory systems known as receptors. characteristic of that channel. For instance, whether the eye is stimulated by light or by pressure on the External Receptors eyeball, we have a visual experience. In order to know about the world around us, physical energy External receptors are those sensory mechanisms must be converted into activity within the nervous that help us make contact with the outer world, for system. The process of converting physical energy example, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. The into activity within the nervous system is called specific receptor cells for receiving the external transduction. Transduction occurs in the receptor stimuli lie within these sensory systems. cells. During the transduction process, receptor cells Sense organs: convert physical energy into an electric voltage or ™™ Our sense organs help in assimilating knowledge potential, called the receptor potential. In some of the world around us. Each of our sense organs sensory systems, the receptor potential itself directly has a distinct function to perform. triggers the nerve impulses that travel to the brain ™™ Sense organs consist of receptors, which are or the spinal cord. In other sensory systems, the specialized sensitive cells associated with receptor potential leads to further electrical events, endings of sensory nerve fibers. These receptors which in turn trigger nerve impulses. This is known are stimulated by objects outside the body and as the ‘generator potential’. also by internal conditions. For any event in the environment, thousands of ™™ When the receptors are not functioning properly, nerve impulses are generated and conducted to the they lead to sensory defects or disorders—visual, central nervous system. Since, these impulses travel auditory, cutaneous, olfactory, gustatory and along many different nerve fibers at slightly different kinesthetic disorders. times, they form a pattern of input to the central 20 Psychology for Nurses nervous system that is the basis for our sensory treating or using treatments or applications of any experience of the event (Figure 2.1). kind. Bandages, adhesive tapes, plaster casts, heat Sometimes our sensations are not accurate or cold, even wrinkled linens may be very irritating because our sense organs or parts of the nerve to a patient. Gentle skin care is necessary to prevent complexes, which produce sensations are abnormal, irritation. Patients always should be handled gently sick or injured. When this happens, the information and smoothly to avoid pain and discomfort. we receive is inaccurate and our responses become In health-care environment, the possible sources abnormal. for bad odor are: body eliminations, treatment procedures, dressings, drainages and medications. Nursing Implications of Sensory Process These must be controlled as much as possible by The nurse always has to be alert to malfunctioning proper ventilation and prompt disposal of waste. of sense organs and abnormal sensations in patients. A sick person may not relish his food. Taste can be A sick person reacts to colors. There are some improved with good mouth care and well prepared, colors, which are soothening. During illness even clean and fresh food served in an appetizing way. moderate lighting may irritate and cause discomfort. Those who have dizziness may need help in walking For patients, who need rest and sleep lights can be and protection from accidents and injury. Rough, fast subdued. For stimulation and encouragement, warm or jerky movements cause discomfort and irritation bright lights can be used. An ageing patient may need to the patient. Patients should always be handled a great deal of help than younger patients in order to gently and smoothly to avoid discomfort. see visual details. The nurse can use her knowledge concerning A sick person is very much averse to loud noises. the sense organs for her sense training, so that her