PSYCH111 MIDTERMS REVIEWER.pdf

Neuroscience Overview 1. Soma (Cell Body): - Central part of the neuron; contains the nucleus where protein synthesis occurs. 2. Dendrites: - Branch-like structures that receive electrical impulses; referred to as a "dendritic tree." 3. Axon: - A long, cable-like projection that carries ner...

Neuroscience Overview 1. Soma (Cell Body): - Central part of the neuron; contains the nucleus where protein synthesis occurs. 2. Dendrites: - Branch-like structures that receive electrical impulses; referred to as a "dendritic tree." 3. Axon: - A long, cable-like projection that carries nerve signals away from the soma; can be very long. 4. Myelin Sheath: - Insulating layer formed by Schwann cells; increases the speed of impulse transmission. 5. Nodes of Ranvier: - Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid signal conduction. 6. Neurotransmitters: - Chemicals released at the axon tip that transmit impulses across the synapse. 7. Synapse: - The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters act to transfer impulses. 8. Multiple Sclerosis: - An autoimmune disease that attacks the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Psychology Overview 1. Definition: - Systematic study of behavior and mental processes through empirical research. 2. Key Characteristics: - Empirical Evidence: Relies on observation and experimentation. - Hypothesis Testing: Involves formulating testable predictions about behavior. - Objective Measurement: Aims for reliability in measuring psychological variables. - Controlled Conditions: Isolates variables to determine causal relationships. - Replicability: Research findings should be reproducible by others. - Peer Review: Ensures research validity before publication. Major Branches of Psychology 1. Biopsychology (Neuropsychology): - Studies the relationship between brain function and behavior. 2. Cognitive Psychology: - Focuses on mental processes like perception and memory. 3. Developmental Psychology: - Examines human growth and changes throughout the lifespan. 4. Social Psychology: - Explores the influence of social interactions on behavior. 5. Clinical Psychology: - Involves assessment and treatment of mental disorders. 6. Industrial-Organizational Psychology: - Applies psychological principles to workplace issues. 7. Health Psychology: - Investigates how psychological factors impact health and illness. Contemporary Perspectives 1. Biological Perspective: - Examine physiological and genetic bases of behavior. 2. Cognitive Perspective: - Investigates internal mental processes and their applications. 3. Behavioral Perspective: - Emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping behavior. 4. Psychodynamic Perspective: - Focuses on unconscious motives and childhood experiences. 5. Humanistic Perspective: - Highlights personal growth and self-actualization. 6. Sociocultural Perspective: - Examines cultural and social influences on behavior. 7. Evolutionary Perspective: - Uses evolutionary principles to explain behavior and mental processes. Goals of Psychological Research 1. Describe: - Detail behaviors and mental processes accurately. 2. Explain: - Clarify reasons behind behaviors. 3. Predict: - Anticipate behaviors based on observed patterns. 4. Control: - Apply knowledge to influence behaviors positively. Hypotheses in Psychological Research - Null Hypothesis (H0): Assumes no relationship between variables. - Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Assumes a relationship or effect exists. Methods of Psychological Research 1. Descriptive Research: - Describes characteristics using methods like case studies and surveys. 2. Correlational Research: - Detects relationships between variables through statistical analysis. 3. Experimental Research: - Determines causation by manipulating variables in controlled experiments. 4. Longitudinal Research: - Studies the same individuals over time. 5. Cross-Sectional Research: - Studies different groups at one time. 6. Qualitative Research: - Explores complex phenomena through non-numerical data, like interviews. Ethical Issues in Psychological Research 1. Informed Consent: - Participants must be fully informed before agreeing to participate. 2. Confidentiality: - Researchers must protect participant privacy. 3. Debriefing: - Participants receive complete information about the study after participation. 4. Minimizing Harm: - Efforts must be made to reduce any potential harm to participants. 5. Voluntary Participation: - Participation must be free, with the right to withdraw. 6. Ethical Review Boards: - Research proposals must be reviewed to ensure ethical standards. Review of Key Concepts in Early Psychology and Philosophy Methods of Studying Behavior and Mental Processes: 1. Observational Studies: Observe behavior in natural settings. ○ Strengths: Provides real-world insights. ○ Weaknesses: Lack of control over variables. 2. Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a single individual or group. ○ Strengths: Detailed and comprehensive. ○ Weaknesses: Not generalizable. 3. Surveys: Questionnaires or interviews to gather data. ○ Strengths: Can collect data from large samples. ○ Weaknesses: Potential for biased responses. 4. Correlational Studies: Examine relationships between variables. ○ Strengths: Identify associations between factors. ○ Weaknesses: Cannot establish causality. 5. Experiments: Controlled studies to test hypotheses. ○ Strengths: Can establish cause-and-effect. ○ Weaknesses: May lack real-world relevance. 6. Longitudinal Studies: Follow the same group over time. ○ Strengths: Can observe changes over time. ○ Weaknesses: Time-consuming and costly.  7. Cross-Sectional Studies: Compare different groups at one point in time. ○ Strengths: Quicker and easier than longitudinal studies. ○ Weaknesses: Cannot track changes over time. 8. Qualitative Research: In-depth understanding through interviews, focus groups. ○ Strengths: Rich, detailed insights. ○ Weaknesses: Subject to researcher interpretation. Ancient and Pre-Modern Roots of Psychology: 1. Socrates (469–399 BCE): ○ Focused on ethical behavior and self-understanding. ○ Developed the Socratic Method: Encouraged questioning and introspection. ○ Believed understanding oneself was key to virtuous living. 2. Plato (427–347 BCE): ○ Introduced Dualism: Separation between mind (soul) and body. ○ Believed knowledge is innate and can be recalled through introspection. ○ Allegory of the Cave: Explored perceived reality vs. true forms. 3. Aristotle (384–322 BCE): ○ Emphasized empirical observation and gaining knowledge through experience. ○ Classified mental processes like sensation, perception, and memory. ○ His work De Anima (On the Soul) explored the nature of the soul and memory. ○ Laid the foundation for the scientific method through observation. Contributions from Other Ancient Cultures: 1. India: ○ Upanishads: Explored concepts of consciousness, self (Atman), and connection to Brahman (universal consciousness). ○ Bhagavad Gita: Focused on the self, mind, and Dharma (duty), emphasizing self-control and meditation. 2. China: ○ Confucianism: Focused on ethics, morality, and the impact of relationships (parent-child, ruler-subject). Highlighted the influence of environment and upbringing on behavior. ○ Daoism (Laozi): Emphasized harmony with nature and the Tao (the Way). Advocated for balance, inner peace, and mindfulness in life. Review of Key Concepts in Psychology: Middle Ages to Renaissance, and the Emergence of Modern Psychology Middle Ages: Scholasticism 1. Scholasticism: Medieval philosophical approach that aimed to reconcile faith and reason. ○ Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274): Attempted to merge Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy. Argued that reason and faith complement each other. His work in Summa Theologica laid groundwork for future explorations of mind and human nature. Renaissance (14th to 17th Centuries): Renewal of Interest in the Human Mind 1. Humanism: Emphasized the potential of the human mind and the study of classical texts. ○ Thinkers like Erasmus and Machiavelli focused on human behavior and ethics. ○ Shifted focus towards secular and individualistic understanding of the mind. 2. Art and Science: ○ Advances in these fields reflected a growing interest in human anatomy and psychology. ○ Figures like Leonardo da Vinci studied the human body, setting the stage for the scientific exploration of psychological phenomena. Emergence of Modern Psychology (17th and 18th Centuries) 1. Rationalism and Empiricism: Two key philosophical approaches. 2. Rationalism: ○ Rene Descartes (1596–1650): Proposed dualism: Mind and body are separate entities. Emphasized the role of reason in understanding the mind. Famous for "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). 3. Empiricism: ○ John Locke (1632–1704): Advocated that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Argued in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, shaped by experience. ○ David Hume (1711–1776): Expanded on empiricism, stressing the importance of observation and experience in understanding human behavior. In A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume argued that human understanding arises from sensory impressions, not pure reason. Early Biological Foundations of Psychology 1. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894): ○ Studied sensory perception and reaction times.  ○ Measured the speed of nerve impulses and explored visual and auditory perception. ○ His research linked physiology and psychology, demonstrating that mental processes could be studied scientifically. 19th Century: The Birth of Psychology as a Science Foundational Figures 1. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): ○ Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879. ○ This is seen as the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental and scientific discipline. ○ Used introspection to study conscious experience. 2. William James (1842–1910): ○ Known as the "father of American psychology." ○ Published "The Principles of Psychology" in 1890, a landmark book in psychology. ○ Introduced key concepts like the stream of consciousness, habit, and the self. ○ Emphasized the functionalist perspective, focusing on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments. Early Schools of Thought 1. Structuralism: ○ Founders: Led by Wilhelm Wundt and further developed by Edward Titchener. ○ Focus: Understanding the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into basic components, such as sensations, perceptions, and emotions. ○ Method: Used introspection to analyze conscious experiences, though this method was criticized for lack of reliability and objectivity. 2. Example of Structuralism: ○ A structuralist might analyze fear by breaking it down into physical sensations (e.g., heart racing), cognitive aspects (e.g., thoughts of danger), and the subjective feeling of fear. The goal would be to understand the individual elements of the emotional experience. 3. Functionalism: ○ Influence: Emerged as a reaction to structuralism, heavily influenced by William James.  ○Focus: Rather than analyzing the components of consciousness, functionalism emphasized the purpose of mental processes and how they help individuals adapt to their environments. ○ Legacy: Functionalism had a lasting influence on later developments in psychology, such as behaviorism and applied psychology. 4. Example of Functionalism: ○ A functionalist would study memory by examining how it helps individuals solve problems, such as using past experiences to make better decisions in new situations. The focus would be on how memory functions to aid adaptation, rather than the elements of the memory process itself. Summary 19th Century: Marked the shift from philosophical inquiry to scientific study of the mind and behavior. Wilhelm Wundt and William James played key roles in shaping psychology as a scientific discipline. Structuralism focused on breaking down mental processes, while Functionalism emphasized practical applications and the adaptive functions of mental processes. The early 20th century marked significant expansion and divergence in psychology, as new schools of thought emerged, each with distinct approaches and methodologies. Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud: Freud pioneered psychoanalysis, emphasizing the role of the unconscious, childhood experiences, and the structure of the mind (id, ego, and superego). His psychosexual stages of development proposed that personality developed through a series of stages centered around erogenous zones. Freud's theories laid the foundation for understanding mental conflict and defense mechanisms like repression, denial, and projection. Behaviorism John B. Watson: In 1913, Watson's paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" rejected introspection, advocating for the study of observable behavior. He believed that behavior is a response to environmental stimuli, aligning with Pavlov’s classical conditioning. B.F. Skinner: Skinner expanded on Watson’s work, introducing operant conditioning, which focuses on how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior. This approach became influential in areas like education and therapy. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler: Gestalt psychology emphasized that the mind organizes sensory experiences into meaningful wholes, with the famous idea that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” They proposed principles of perception like figure-ground, proximity, and closure, studying how we naturally group sensory inputs. Applied Psychology Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Psychologists applied principles of efficiency and productivity to workplaces, focusing on employee well-being. Educational Psychology: Researchers like Edward Thorndike studied how people learn, developing methods to enhance teaching. Clinical Psychology: The field grew as clinics and psychological testing developed, particularly after World War I. The Cognitive Revolution (Precursors) Edward Tolman: Tolman’s work on cognitive maps and latent learning suggested that cognitive processes influence behavior, challenging behaviorism. Jean Piaget: Piaget’s early research on cognitive development laid the foundation for understanding how children's thinking evolves, which would later become a significant area in developmental psychology. Research Methods There was a rise in quantitative methods and statistical analyses, including longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, to explore developmental changes and differences across populations. Institutionalization of Psychology The formation of professional organizations like the American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological Society (BPS) supported the growth of psychology as a field. Academic psychology expanded, with increasing publications and research contributions. This period was crucial for establishing psychology as a robust and diverse field, paving the way for later advancements in cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and humanistic approaches. The mid-20th century to the present marks a period of significant advancement in psychology, with the rise of various schools of thought, technological innovations, and a broader application of psychological principles. Here’s an overview: 1. Cognitive Revolution Shift from Behaviorism: The 1950s and 60s saw a move away from behaviorism to studying internal mental processes. Key Figures: ○ George A. Miller: His work on memory, especially the "magic number seven," emphasized human cognitive limits. ○ Ulric Neisser: Considered the "father of cognitive psychology," he coined the term and focused on mental processes like memory and perception. ○ Aaron Beck & Albert Ellis: Developed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), a widely used therapeutic approach focusing on modifying negative thought patterns. Key Concepts: Information processing, mental schemas, and how mental processes like memory and perception function. 2. Humanistic Psychology Background: Emerged in response to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, emphasizing free will and personal growth. Key Figures: ○ Carl Rogers: Developed client-centered therapy, stressing the importance of empathy and unconditional positive regard. ○ Abraham Maslow: Famous for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, which focuses on self-actualization. Key Concepts: Human potential, personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience. 3. Biological Psychology and Neuroscience Advancements: New technologies like fMRI and PET scans have provided deeper insights into the brain and its relationship with behavior. Key Concepts: Neurotransmitters, the genetic basis of behavior, and the biological underpinnings of mental disorders. 4. Social Psychology Focus: Explores how social influences shape behavior. Key Figures: ○ Leon Festinger: Developed the theory of cognitive dissonance, exploring how people seek consistency in beliefs and behaviors.  ○ Stanley Milgram: Known for his obedience experiments, revealing the power of authority in shaping behavior. ○ Philip Zimbardo: Conducted the Stanford prison experiment, highlighting situational influences on behavior. Cultural Perspectives: Growing interest in how culture impacts psychological processes, known as cross-cultural psychology. 5. Evolutionary Psychology Background: Explores how evolutionary processes influence behavior and mental processes. Key Figures: ○ David Buss: Focused on evolutionary aspects of human mating and emotions. ○ Leda Cosmides & John Tooby: Pioneered work on how evolution shaped cognitive functions. Key Concepts: Natural selection, adaptation, and the evolution of social behavior. 6. Technology and Psychology Integration: Advances in technology have influenced fields like cyberpsychology and human-computer interaction. Key Concepts: The impact of digital technology on cognition, virtual reality in therapy, and the effects of social media on mental health. 7. Positive Psychology Focus: Studies positive emotions and factors that contribute to well-being. Key Figures: ○ Martin Seligman: Introduced concepts like learned optimism and the PERMA model, which focuses on well-being. ○ Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: Known for his work on flow, the state of deep immersion in activities. Key Concepts: Happiness, resilience, and strength-based approaches to mental health. 8. Contemporary Trends and Future Directions Diversity and Inclusion: Growing focus on gender, racial, and cultural diversity in psychological research. Interdisciplinary Approaches: Increasing collaboration between psychology and fields like neuroscience and public health. Global Mental Health: A rising focus on mental health issues, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Technology in Mental Health: The increasing use of digital tools like teletherapy and mental health apps, as well as AI-driven interventions. This era has shaped psychology into a diverse and evolving field that continues to integrate new knowledge and tools to address human behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study behavior and mental processes using a variety of scientific methods and approaches to gain a deeper understanding of human and animal behavior. Here’s a breakdown: 1. The Scientific Method Process: Psychologists state a question, develop a theory, and test hypotheses through experiments. They use evidence-based strategies to apply their findings to real-world problems. Steps: 1. Observation: Identifying behaviors or mental processes of interest. 2. Formulation of Theories: Developing explanations based on observations. 3. Hypothesis Testing: Designing experiments to test these theories under controlled conditions. 4. Results and Application: Using results to inform solutions and improve lives. 2. Research Methods Observational Studies: Psychologists observe and record behavior in natural or laboratory settings. This includes participant observation, where researchers immerse themselves in the environment they’re studying. Experiments: Controlled experiments test specific variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Case Studies: In-depth examinations of individuals or small groups. Correlational Research: Examines the relationship between two variables without implying causation. Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference. 3. Technological Tools fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): One of the most popular techniques to study brain activity, fMRI shows blood flow to different brain areas, linking increased activity to specific mental processes. 4. Applied and Research Psychology  Research Psychologists: Create new knowledge about behavior by conducting studies and publishing findings. Applied Psychologists: Use this research to improve lives in various fields, including clinical, counseling, educational, and organizational settings. 5. Nervous System and Behavior Studying the nervous system helps psychologists understand how brain processes influence emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, as well as basic functions like breathing. In essence, psychologists apply rigorous methods to study and interpret behavior, contributing to both theoretical knowledge and practical applications. The nervous and endocrine systems play crucial roles in human development by controlling both physical and mental processes throughout a person's life. Nervous System's Role in Development Early Development: It forms the foundation for critical milestones like walking, talking, and learning. As the brain and spinal cord (Central Nervous System) develop, they manage everything from sensory processing (e.g., sight, sound, touch) to motor skills. Key Components: ○ Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord, which control voluntary actions (walking, talking) and involuntary processes (breathing, heart rate). ○ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, controlling both voluntary and involuntary behaviors. It's divided into: Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements like walking. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions like digestion and heart rate, with two sub-systems: Sympathetic Nervous System: Triggers "fight or flight" during stress. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes "rest and digest" for energy conservation. Functions in Behavior: ○ Information Processing: The CNS processes sensory data and directs actions, while the PNS - coordinates responses throughout the body. ○ Emotional Regulation: The limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus) regulates emotions and memory. ○ Learning and Memory: Neuroplasticity (the brain’s adaptability) helps with learning and memory formation, primarily involving the hippocampus. Endocrine System's Role in Development Key Functions: The endocrine system, through various glands, regulates growth, metabolism, puberty, and stress responses via hormones. Key Glands: ○ Pituitary Gland: Controls growth, blood pressure, and reproduction. ○ Hypothalamus: Connects the nervous and endocrine systems, managing homeostasis (e.g., body temperature, hunger). ○ Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism and energy. ○ Adrenal Glands: Manage stress responses by producing cortisol and adrenaline. ○ Gonads (Ovaries/Testes): Regulate sexual development and reproduction through hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Functions in Behavior: ○ Hormonal Regulation: Hormones influence growth, metabolism, mood, and behavior. ○ Stress Response: Hormones like cortisol and adrenaline help manage the body's "fight or flight" response during stress. ○ Mood and Emotional Regulation: Hormones such as serotonin (mood), dopamine (reward and pleasure), and oxytocin (social bonding) affect emotional states and social behavior. ○ Reproductive Behaviors: Hormones regulate sexual behavior, mating, and parenting, with effects on mood and energy levels. Together, the nervous and endocrine systems regulate everything from basic bodily functions to complex emotional and social behaviors, influencing overall human development from infancy to adulthood. When an individual faces issues with both the nervous and endocrine systems, the effects can be widespread, affecting various physical and mental functions due to the close interconnection between these systems. Here are some potential consequences: 1. Impaired Communication Between Systems: ○ Nervous System: Damage to the brain, spinal cord, or nerves can lead to problems such as paralysis, cognitive dysfunction, or sensory loss. ○ Endocrine System: Malfunctions in the endocrine system can result in conditions like diabetes or thyroid disorders, affecting growth, metabolism, and mood. ○ Interaction: When both systems are affected, their communication breaks down, causing a lack of coordination between fast nervous responses and slower hormonal processes. 2. Hormonal Imbalances and Nervous System Disorders:  ○ Conditions like hypothyroidism can slow reflexes, cause fatigue, and lead to depression, while hyperthyroidism can result in anxiety and tremors. Similarly, Addison’s disease affects blood pressure and mood, leading to fatigue and depression. 3. Disrupted Homeostasis: ○ The hypothalamus, which regulates homeostasis, may fail if damaged, leading to disruptions in temperature regulation, appetite control, and stress responses. This can cause hormonal deficiencies, like hypopituitarism. 4. Metabolic Disorders: ○ Both systems play vital roles in metabolism. Dysfunction can lead to diabetes or metabolic syndrome, where nerve damage (neuropathy) is often linked to metabolic disturbances. 5. Stress Response Dysregulation: ○ The HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) coordinates stress responses. When disrupted, it can lead to chronic stress conditions like anxiety disorders or chronic fatigue syndrome. 6. Mental Health Disorders: ○ Hormonal imbalances can impact mental health, leading to disorders like depression and anxiety. For example, low serotonin (from the nervous system) and high cortisol (from the endocrine system) levels are linked to depression. These consequences illustrate how tightly linked the nervous and endocrine systems are, and how issues in one system often exacerbate problems in the other. Perception is the process by which we interpret and organize sensory information to make sense of our environment. It shapes how we experience the world and influences our responses to stimuli. Below is an overview of the stages and key concepts related to perception: Stages of Perception 1. Sensation: The initial detection of stimuli through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, or skin. 2. Transduction: Conversion of sensory input into neural signals, which the brain can process. 3. Attention: Focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others, essential for filtering information. 4. Interpretation: The brain organizes and makes sense of sensory data based on experiences, memories, and context. The Brain’s Role in Perception  Visual Cortex: Processes visual information. Auditory Cortex: Processes sound. Somatosensory Cortex: Handles touch, temperature, and pain. Different pathways in the brain, like the dorsal stream (for location, the "where" pathway) and ventral stream (for identification, the "what" pathway), are involved in interpreting sensory input. Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing Bottom-up processing: Building perceptions based purely on sensory input (e.g., recognizing shapes). Top-down processing: Interpreting sensory data based on prior knowledge and expectations. For example, whether you see the figure as a "B" or "13" depends on the surrounding context. Sensory Thresholds 1. Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity required for detection 50% of the time (e.g., the faintest sound detectable). 2. Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, explained by Weber’s Law, which states that the stronger the stimulus, the greater the difference required for detection. Sensory Adaptation Over time, we become less aware of continuous stimuli (e.g., tuning out the ticking of a clock), demonstrating that sensation and perception are distinct processes. Attention and Perception Attention plays a critical role in what we perceive. The phenomenon of inattentional blindness shows how focusing on one task can make us miss other stimuli, such as missing an unexpected object while concentrating on something else. Motivation, Expectations, and Perception Motivation can alter perception. For example, expecting an important call might make you think you hear the phone ringing even when it isn’t. This ties into signal detection theory, which explains how we identify stimuli amidst background noise based on factors like motivation and expectations. For instance, a mother can wake up to a soft murmur from her baby while ignoring louder sounds. Perception is not just about receiving sensory input but also involves interpreting and organizing that information based on experience, context, and individual focus.