Psychology Test Topics PDF

[Psychology Test Topics] - **Psychological effects of cocaine, marijuana, & alcohol** - [Cocaine] - Intense feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and alertness - Heightened confidence and sociability - As effects wear off you could experience...

[Psychology Test Topics] - **Psychological effects of cocaine, marijuana, & alcohol** - [Cocaine] - Intense feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and alertness - Heightened confidence and sociability - As effects wear off you could experience anxiety, paranoia, and irritability - Highly addictive - [Marijuana] - affects mood and perception - It can enhance sensory experiences but may also distort time perception and impair motor skills - It can relieve anxiety but also increase anxiety/induce panic & paranoia - [Alcohol] - Induces feelings of relaxation and euphoria - Lowers shyness which increases sociability - As consumption increases, it impairs cognitive functions and decision-making abilities - Chronic alcohol use can lead to physical dependence - **Aphasia**: what part of the brain would be affected (lose the ability to speak) - Located in the left hemisphere of the brain - [Broca\'s aphasia]: leaves you with limited language - [Wernick\'s] [aphasia]: leaves you with jumbled speech - **The Broca area of the brain + the Wernick area:** what they do/differences (have to do with speech) - [Broca area]: responsible for speech production - Damage makes it hard to speak - [Wernick\'s area]: responsible for speech comprehension - Damage here makes it hard to understand language - **Parasympathetic/sympathetic** - [Parasympathetic]: parachute, resting, calming down, slowing heartbeat - [Sympathetic]: high blood pressure, adrenaline, fast heartbeat - **4 classifications of drugs:** - Depressants - **Brain effects:** slow down the messages between the brain and the body - **Body effects:** Relaxation and less inhibition - **Duration:** Depends. Could be 10 minutes or 8 hours. - **Risks:** Slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, weakness - Hallucinogens - **Brain effects:** relaxation - **Body effects:** Feelings of euphoria and relaxation in the body - **Duration:** Lasts hours or less - **Risks:** Could cause disorientation and poor judgement - Opioids - **Brain effects:** euphoria and reduced pain - **Body effects:** drowsiness, confusion, and slowed breathing - **Duration:** 2-4 hours - **Risks:** Could slow down your breathing and heart rate until death - Stimulants - **Brain effects:** heightened sense of well-being, excitement, and alertness - **Body effects:** Increased heart rate and blood pressure - **Duration:** 3-6 hours or up to 12 - **Risks:** Loss of appetite, dizziness, tremors - **Sleep malfunctions/conditions people can have:** - Narcolepsy - Sudden and uncontrollable "sleep attacks," often directly into REM sleep - Insomnia - Difficulty falling or staying asleep, leading to fatigue and impaired functioning during the day - **Review a little about:** - Case study\'s - In-depth examination of an individual or a small group, often focusing on unique or rare circumstances - Experimental - A research method used to determine causal relationships between variables. It involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable - Correlational - a research method used to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. - **Parts of the brain:** - Cerebellum - Back of the brain - Crucial role in motor control, coordination, & precision - Limbic system - Located in the temporal lobe - Amygdala and hippocampus are a part of this system - Involved in emotions, memory, & arousal - Hippocampus - Located in the temporal lobe - Key part of limbic system - Essential for memory formation & spatial navigation - Medulla - Located in the brainstem - Controls autonomic functions like heart rate & breathing - Thalamus - Near temporal lobe - Part of the limbic system - Involved in regulating sleep, alertness, & consciousness - **Hearing:** - Loss of hearing affects balance - **What is a reuptake?** - Process involving the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the synaptic cleft after they have transmitted a nerve impulse across a synapse - **What is brain plasticity?** - Also known as neuroplasticity - Refers to the brain\'s ability to change and adapt in response to experiences, learning, and environmental factors. This allows the brain to reorganize its structure and function throughout life, so it can form new neural connections and pathways - **Sleep:** - [What is the circadian rhythm?] - a 24-hour biological clock that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and other bodily functions. - **Presentation about sensations:** different thresholds, JND (just noticeable difference) - Thresholds: absolute thresholds & difference thresholds - [Absolute thresholds]: minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected by an individual 50% of the time. - The faintest sound that can be heard in a quiet environment. - The smallest amount of light that can be detected in darkness. - The minimum concentration of a substance (like sugar) in water that can be tasted. - [Difference thresholds]: the smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected. It is the minimum difference required for a person to notice a change between two stimuli 50% of the time. - The smallest change in volume on a radio that can be noticed. - The minimum weight difference between two objects can be perceived as different. - The least amount of increase in brightness between two light sources that can be distinguished. - **Location of:** - Thalamus (controls sleep, learning, & memory) - Amygdala (controls anxiety, fear, & aggression) - Hippocampus (controls memory & learning) - Brian stem (controls breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, & heart rate)  - **Vision:** - **Cornea**: transparent outer layer that helps focus light entering the eye - **Pupil**: adjustable opening in the center of the eye that controls the amount of light entering - **Lens**: flexible, transparent structure that changes shape to focus light on the retina - **Retina**: layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptor cells ([rods/cones]) that convert light into electrical signals - **Photoreceptors**: cells in the retina ([rods/cones]) that detect light and color - **Optic nerve**: the nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain for processing - **Visual cortex**: part of the brain that interprets signals from the optic nerve and creates the images we see - **What color blindness does to the eye: [what part it effects]** - Color blindness impacts the eye since you will have trouble seeing the difference between certain colors/shades. It will also be hard to perceive the brightness of colors. - Color blindness impacts the retina and the [cone cells]. - **Psychoactive drugs:** - [Antagonist] - Substances that bind to specific receptors but do not activate them. Instead, they block or inhibit the action of agonists and prevent neurotransmitters from exerting their effects. - Used to reverse opioid overdoses by displacing opioids from their receptors, thereby reversing the effects of opioid drugs like heroin and morphine. - [Agonist] - Substances that bind to specific receptors and activate them, mimicking the action of naturally occurring neurotransmitters or hormones. - Used for pain relief by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and mimicking the effects of natural endorphins, thereby reducing pain perception and inducing euphoria. - **Review the hormones:** - The flash cards - **4 lobes of brain:** - Occipital (controls visual perception like color, form, & motion) - Frontal (voluntary movement, cognitive skills, & the capacity to plan & organize) - Parietal (controls taste, hearing, sight, touch, & smell) - Temporal (controls ability to access memory\'s, use language, & process emotions) - **The 2 basic sleep stages:** what happens in both - REM - Rapid Eye Movement - Paradoxical sleep where the brain is active, but the body is paralyzed. - Associated with vivid dreams. - Plays a key role in memory consolidation, especially for skills and information learned during the day. - NREM (what are the 3 stages) - Non-Rapid Eye Movement has multiple stages of progressively deeper sleep - **Stage 1:** Light sleep, marked by alpha waves and hypnagogic sensations (hallucinations or falling sensations). - **Stage 2:** Deeper relaxation, characterized by sleep spindles and EEG patterns showing more synchronized brain activity. - **Stage 3:** Deep sleep, featuring slow delta waves. Hardest stage to wake from; crucial for physical restoration. - **Ear:** - Hearing sense - Pitch perception relies on two main theories: [frequency theory] and [place theory]. - Frequency theory suggests that for low-frequency sounds, hair cells in the cochlea fire at a rate that matches the sound\'s frequency, sending signals to the brain that correspond to that pitch. - Place theory posits that different pitches are detected based on which part of the cochlea is stimulated; high-frequency sounds activate hair cells near the base, while low-frequency sounds stimulate cells at the apex. Once activated, hair cells send electrical signals through the auditory nerve to the brain, where these signals are interpreted as distinct pitches. - **Placebo effect** - psychological phenomenon where individuals experience real improvements in their symptoms after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic value - Giving someone fake alcohol and seeing if they act drunk - **What does the pituitary gland do:** - it releases hormones that regulate growth and other essential processes - [What controls it?] - Controlled by the hypothalamus - Pituitary gland is part of the hypothalamus - **What disease develops when the Mylin sheath is damaged?** - Multiple Sclerosis (MS disease) - Autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath in the central nervous system (CNS), leading to inflammation and damage.  1\. Types of Studies (MCQs) - [Longitudinal Study]: Follows same subjects over a long period to observe changes. - [Case Study]: In-depth analysis of an individual or group. - [Cross-sectional Study]: Compares different populations at a single point in time. - [Experiment]: Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect. (Causation) - [Correlational Study]: Relationships between variables- correlation. (No Causation) 2\. Nature vs. Nurture (MCQs) - [Nature]: Heredity and genetic factors influence behavior and traits (e.g., eye color, height). - [Nurture]: Environmental factors (e.g., culture, upbringing, education) influence development. - [Interaction]: Both genes and environment work together *(e.g., a child's intelligence is influenced by their genetic makeup and the educational environment).* 3\. Twin Studies (MCQs) - [Monozygotic Twins (Identical):] Share 100% of genes, used to study genetic vs. environmental influences. - [Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal):] Share 50% of genes, used for comparison with identical twins. 4\. Natural Selection (MCQs) - [Evolutionary Psychology]: Traits that enhance survival are passed down. - [Behavioral Adaptations]: Psychological traits *(e.g., fear of snakes) that increase survival are naturally selected.* 5\. Nervous System (MCQs) - [Central Nervous System (CNS)]: Brain and spinal cord; controls most bodily functions. - [Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)]: Connects the CNS to the body; includes sensory and motor neurons. - [Somatic System]: Controls voluntary movements (e.g., picking up a book). - [Autonomic System]: Controls involuntary actions (e.g., heartbeat, digestion). - [Sympathetic]: Prepares the body for action (fight-or-flight response). - *Physiological effects: dilated pupils, increased heart rate, inhibited digestion.* - [Parasympathetic]: Calms the body down (rest-and-digest). - *Physiological effects: constricted pupils, decreased heart rate, stimulated digestion.* 6\. Neuron Anatomy (MCQs) - [Dendrites]: Receive signals from other neurons. - [Cell Body (Soma)]: Processes incoming information. - [Axon]: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body. - [Myelin Sheath]: Insulates the axon to speed up signal transmission (damage can lead to conditions like Multiple Sclerosis). - [Axon Terminals]: Release neurotransmitters into the synapse to communicate with other neurons. 7\. Operational Definitions (MCQs) - [Definition]: Clear, measurable definition of a variable in research *(e.g., defining \"aggression\" as the number of punches thrown in a study).* 8\. Neurotransmitters - [Serotonin]: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite. Low levels are linked to depression. - [Endorphins]: Natural pain relievers, that promote pleasure (e.g., \"runner's high\"). - [Dopamine]: Involved in reward, pleasure, and motor control. *Linked to conditions like Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.* 1\. Key Brain Structures and Functions **Cerebral Cortex**: Responsible for higher-level thinking, sensation, and movement. - [Frontal Lobe]: Decision-making, executive functions, and voluntary movements (motor cortex). - [Parietal Lobe]: Processes sensory input (somatosensory cortex). - [Occipital Lobe]: Visual processing. - [Temporal Lobe]: Auditory processing and language comprehension. **Limbic System**: Group of interconnected brain structures that regulate emotions and behavior - [Thalamus]: Relays sensory information. - [Hypothalamus]: Regulates basic drives and maintains homeostasis. - [Amygdala]: Processes emotions like fear and aggression. - [Hippocampus]: Memory formation. **Brain Stem**: Controls life-sustaining functions. - [Medulla]: Manages breathing and heart rate. - [Reticular] Activating System (RAS): Regulates alertness and sleep/wake cycles. **Cerebellum**: Coordinates voluntary movements and balance---a key role in motor learning. *Vocabulary* - [Brain Plasticity]: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt after injury. - [Split Brain]: Corpus callosum severed; reveals hemispheric specialization. - [EEG]: Measures electrical brain activity. - [fMRI]: Tracks blood flow to show active brain areas. 2\. Sleep/Wake Cycle and Circadian Rhythm - [Circadian Rhythm]: 24-hour biological clock controlled by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus. - [Disruptions]: Jet lag, irregular sleep patterns, and shift work impact mood, alertness, and cognition. #### 3. Stages of Sleep - **NREM Sleep:** - [Stage 1]: Light sleep, hypnagogic sensations. - [Stage 2]: Sleep spindles, deeper relaxation. - [Stages 3 & 4]: Deep sleep (delta waves), physical restoration. - **REM Sleep**: - Brain is active; body is paralyzed (paradoxical sleep). - Vivid dreams; important for memory consolidation. #### #### 4. Dream Theories - [Activation Synthesis Theory]: Dreams are the brain's interpretation of random neural activity. - [Consolidation Theory]: Dreams help process and store memories. #### #### 5. Sleep Disorders - [Insomnia]: Difficulty falling or staying asleep. - [Narcolepsy]: Sudden sleep attacks. - [Sleep Apnea]: Breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep. - [REM Sleep Behavior Disorder]: Acting out dreams. - [Somnambulism]: Sleepwalking during deep NREM sleep. #### #### Vocabulary - [REM Rebound]: Increased REM sleep after deprivation. - [Hypnagogic Sensations]: Hallucinations at sleep onset. #### 6. Sensory Processes - **Thresholds**: - [Absolute Threshold]: Minimum level of stimulus detected 50% of the time (e.g., faintest sound). - [Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference):] Minimum difference between two stimuli detected 50% of the time. - **Sensory Adaptation**: - Diminished sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time (e.g., no longer noticing a strong smell). #### 7. Vision (Occipital Lobe) - **Structures**: - [Cornea]: Focuses light entering the eye. - [Pupil]: Regulates the amount of light entering the eye. - [Lens]: Changes shape to focus light onto the retina. - [Retina]: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones). - *Rods*: Detect black, white, and gray; essential for night vision. - *Cones*: Detect color and fine detail in bright light. - **Color Vision**: - [Trichromatic Theory]: Red, green, and blue cones combine to produce color. - [Opponent-Process Theory]: Explains afterimages and color pairings (red-green, blue-yellow). #### 8. Hearing (Temporal Lobe) - **Structures**: - [Cochlea]: Converts sound waves into neural signals. - [Hair Cells]: Detect sound vibrations; damage leads to hearing loss. - **Theories of Pitch**: - [Frequency Theory]: Explains low-pitch sounds. - [Place Theory]: Explains high-pitch sounds. #### #### 8. Touch (Parietal Lobe) - [Types of Sensations]: Includes pressure, temperature, and pain. - [Receptors]: Specialized nerve endings in the skin detect different types of touch stimuli. #### 9. Taste (Frontal Lobe and Insula) - Gustation - [Basic Tastes]: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami. - [Receptors]: Taste buds on the tongue detect chemicals in food. #### #### 10. Smell (Temporal Lobe/Limbic System) - Olfaction - [Process]: Odor molecules bind to receptors in the nasal cavity. Signals bypass the thalamus and go directly to the brain. - [Connection]: Strong link with memory and emotion due to the limbic system. #### Kinesthetic Sense (Cerebellum) - [Process]: Proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints detect body position and movement. #### Vestibular Sense (Cerebellum) - [Process]: The semicircular canals in the inner ear detect balance and spatial orientation.