Psychology Study Guide PDF

# Study Guide Final Exam - Psychology 100 ## What is Psychology - Psychology is the science of mental behavior. - It crosses the disciplines of biomedicine, philosophy, and engineering. - It's the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. ### Misconceptions about Psychology - **Psycho...

# Study Guide Final Exam - Psychology 100 ## What is Psychology - Psychology is the science of mental behavior. - It crosses the disciplines of biomedicine, philosophy, and engineering. - It's the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. ### Misconceptions about Psychology - **Psychology is NOT scientific.** - **Psychology is common sense.** - **Psychology is psychic.** - **Psychology is psychiatry.** - **Psychology is limited to clinical/counseling.** ## History of Psychology ### Precursors to the Field (BCE - 1700s) - **Philosophy of mind-body distinction** - Buddha - Socrates - Plato - Aristotle ### Early Doers (1800's - 1920s) - **Structuralism (Structures of the mind)** - an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener. - Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. - Believed that structure is more important than function. - **Functionalism (Function of the mind)** - an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin. - Explores how mental and behavioral processes function. - How they enable the organism to adapt survive, and flourish. - **Reaction Time (first simple experiments)** ### Late Innovators (1960s-Present) - **Unconscious Mind** - talk therapy, not scientifically proven - Freud - Emphasized the way our unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood affect our behavior. - **Behaviorism** - the science of observable behavior on animals. - Believed that psychology should be an objective science, and that it should only focus on behavior and not mental processes. - Watson - Skinner - **Human Potential** - More relevant to human cognition - Maslow ## Subfields of Psychology - **Clinical (applied)** - studies assesses and treats those with psychological disorders (diagnosed individuals) - **Counseling (applied)** - helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges (work with anyone) - **Educational and School (applied)** - studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings - **Biological and Neuroscience (basic)** - explores the link between the brain and the mind (healthier body = healthier mind) - **Cognitive (basic)** - explores how we perceive, think, and solve problems - **Developmental (basic)** - studies the changing abilities from womb to tomb (LARGEST) - **Social (basic)** - explores how we view and affect one another - **Personality (basic)** - investigates traits related to stable behaviors ## Positive Psychology - Reflects historic shift in focus of psychology. - It emphasizes: - **Social:** More social support and richer in social interactions, more satisfying and longer marriages, more prosocial behavior - **Work:** Greater productivity, lower absenteeism - **Health:** Better physical health (strengthened immune system, less pain, greater longevity), better mental health (lowered stress, depression, and anxiety) - **Personal:** More activity, and energy flow, increased creativity and self-confidence, better self-regulation and ability to cope, increasing mood, broadens attention and thinking, speeds learning and decision making ## Factors that Control Happiness - **Parents (genetics)** = 50% - **Circumstances** = 10% - **Activities and Outlook** = 40% ## Happiness is NOT - Wealth. - Cool stuff. - Grades. - Acceptance to your favorite university. ## Types of Happiness - **Pleasant Life:** lots of positive emotion (here and now) - Practice mindfulness and savoring. - Become aware. - Stay in present moment. - Notice things in a non-judgmental way. - Gratitude Journal. - Focus on experiences. - Random acts of kindness. - Strengths date. - Hiking. - **Good life:** able to find flow (future) - Flow = getting lost in a task, time stops, intense connections. - **Meaningful Life:** years down road. ## Psychology as a Science - **Science is a tool for answering questions.** - **Need for Science:** Intuition and common sense are subject to biases. - **Hindsight Bias:** believing you could predict the outcome after learning it - **Confirmation Bias:** attend only to information that is consistent with our own beliefs - **Random Events:** tendency to see patterns that aren't even there - **Overconfidence:** Anagrams amount of time to solve something ## The Scientific Method - **To promote change we need evidence** ### Steps of the Scientific Method 1. **Identify the problem.** 2. **Read/develop theory.** - **Theory:** organized predictions, testable or falsifiable, changeable (hence improved with time and testing) 3. **Formulate hypotheses (operationalize independent variable and dependent variable).** - **Hypothesis:** prediction based on theory. - **Independent variable:** that which is manipulated or believed to influence the dependent variable. - **Dependent variable:** that which is observed for changes due to the independent variable. - " I predict that the (independent variable) will influence the (dependent variable)." 4. **Test Hypotheses Empirically** - **Empirically:** balance control and generalizability - **Generalizability:** degree to which study results are applicable to the population of interest by using real-world participants and conditions. - **Control:** eliminate or reduce confounds, variables affecting the dependent variable other than the independent variable. - **Situational effects:** time, temperature, etc. (Might affect outcomes) - Eliminate or hold constant. - Random assignment. - **Experimenter bias:** experimenter's expectation influences outcomes. - Blind design. - Standardization. - **Social desirability:** participant tries to make yourself appear better or fit expectations. - Ensure anonymity. - Mild deception (with debriefing) - Measure personality. 5. **Collect and analyze data.** 6. **Draw conclusions:** re-check for confounds, check reliability and significance 7. **Communicate results.** ## Characteristics of the Scientific Mindset - Curiosity. - Skepticism. - Objectivity. - Humility - critical thinking. ## Characteristics of Nature vs. Nurture - **Nature:** abilities, attitudes, brain waves, fears, heart rate, intelligence, interests, personality temperament. - Biology, genes, these are hardwired (similarities). - **Nurture:** values, beliefs, manners, habits, knowledge, environment culture, we are malleable creatures (differences). ## Nature and Nurture Interactions - **Gender roles, and Identity.** - **EXAMPLE:** how a child's temper is based on parent skills and the type of parenting the children experiences growing up. ## Development of Nature - **Babies are born with reflexes and instincts.** - **Rooting reflexes:** baby makes sucking motions when its cheek or lip is touched (looks for food). - **Crying.** - **Moro reflex:** infant reflex where a baby sticks out its arms because of loss of support (grab onto something when “falling”) - **Natural Attraction to faces shown one hour post birth.** - **Brain cells** ## Maturation - **Common sequence of development** - **Basic course set by experience (nature).** - **Age in which steps are attained are similar across people, adjusted to some extent through experience (nurture).** ## Stages of Cognitive Development - **Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years)** - Learning through senses and movement. - Memory demonstrated with object permanency and separation anxiety. - **Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)** - Represent world with images and sounds. - Language development and pretend play. - Use intuition rather than logic. - Fail conservation of mass and volume. - Egocentric perspective. - **Concrete Operational State (7 - 11 years)** - Logical reasoning. - Conservation of mass and liquid achieved. - Mathematics. - **Formal Operational Stage (12-adulthood)** - Abstract thinking develops. ## Development of Nurture ### Symbolism - **Attachment:** strong emotional bond that develops between child and caregiver. - Not a matter of bodily needs. - Critical period is the first year. ## Stages of Attachment - **Attachment Phase 1:** Indiscriminate, responsiveness. - Signs: Social smile, babbling, grasp reflex - **Attachment Phase 2 (3-6 months):** Focus on the familiar. - Signs: selective smile, stare at unfamiliar - **Attachment Phase 3 (6 months - 3 years):** Intense and exclusive attachment. - Signs: separation/stranger anxiety, attachment styles (1 year) - **Attachment Phase 4 (3 years-12 years):** Partnership behavior. - Signs: visualize parent when apart, more like a partner. ## Styles of Attachment - **Secure Attachment (60%)** - Child plays. - Child stares. - Child cries. - Child quickly soothed leads to self-reliance - **Insecure Avoidant Attachment (20%)** - Child plays. - No reaction. - Ignores caregiver - Leads to being a loner. - **Insecure Ambivalent (10-15%)** - Cling to caregiver. - No reaction. - Child gets upset. - Mixed reactions. - Lead to struggle with trust. ## Parenting Styles - **Authoritarian:** parents impose rules and expect strict obedience - Effects: low self-esteem, low social skills. - **Authoritative (BEST):** Parents are demanding but responsive to their children. - Some negotiation. - Sometimes you can bend the rules. - Works with parents about the rules. - Effects: Self-reliance, socially competent. - **Permissive:** parents submit to children’s demands. - Easier to give in. - Children has bad temperament. - Effects: aggressive, immature. ## Physical Development - **ADOLESCENCE** - **Males:** facial hair, voice change, underarm hair, pubic hair, ejaculation, and testicles. - **Females:** underarm hair, breast growth, hip growth, ovaries, pubic hair. - **ADULTS** - Physical performance declines after 20 years of age. - After age 80, neural processes slow. - Around age 50, women go through menopause, and mens hormones and fertility decrease. ## Cognitive Development - **ADOLESCENCE** - **Selecting pruning of neurons and myelination** - **Selective pruning of neurons:** the brain is trying to make you more efficient by getting rid of unused brain cells. - **Myelination:** oils brain cells to make them faster. - **Limbic system grows faster than frontal cortex.** - **Limbic system:** interior portion of the brain, interprets things as emotional, not logic. - **Abstract reasoning and social awareness lead adolescents to think about and criticize self and others.** - **ADULTS** - **Some deterioration of white matter > desynchronization of brain activity** - **Fluid intelligence:** processing speed - Declines with age, but accumulated skills and knowledge do not. - **Recognition memory is stable, but recall declines with age.** - Example: difficulty remembering names. - **Slow down by creativity.** - Using brain helps body because of signaling. - Creating more routes makes new opportunities. - Doing things you haven't done before makes you learn new things ## Moral Development - **Preconventional:** (younger than 9 years) focus is to avoid punishment/gain rewards. - **Conventional:** (years and older) focus is seeking approval/sense of duty. - **Postconventional:** (late teens) personal ethical principles/affirms rights of others over self and law. ## Social Development - **Adolescence:** (teens - 20's) identity vs role confusion (independence vs dependence) - Understanding who you are. - Finding your place. - **Young Adulthood:** (20-40s) intimacy vs isolation. - Finding your place. - **Middle Adulthood:** (40-60s) generativity vs stagnation. - Generous and giving back vs feeling stuck. - Chance to do better - Find meaning of life - Working (impose order, distraction) - **Late Adulthood:** (60s +) integrity vs despair - Looking back on life - Pride and joy vs lonely, and nothing else to live for. ## Sensation vs. Perception; Bottom-up vs. Top-Down Processing. - **Sensation:** this refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. - *Sensation refers to data input and bottom-up processing* - **Perception:** We interpret and make sense of our environment through this (interpretation and recognition). - *Sensation refers to top-down processing* ### Bottom-up Processing - Taking in information and assembling it (what am I seeing). - **Ex:** the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges (feature detection, bottom up processing) - **Receptor rods and cones -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells (retinal processing, bottom up processing)** ### Top-down Processing - Interpret information, information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. - **Ex:** when we use models, ideas, and expectation to interpret sensory information (top-down processing) - **Ex:** the brain interprets the constructed image based on information from stored images (recognition, top-down processing) ## Thresholds - **Absolute Threshold:** minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time - **Difference Threshold:** the minimum difference between the two stimuli needed to detect the change 50% of the time - **Low threshold:** more sensitive ## Sensory Adaptation - Diminished sensitivity because of constant stimulation. - **A room smells bad for a while but then you get used to it** ## Major Parts of The Eye and Their Function in Visual Perception and Color Vision - **Cones: ** These allow us to see color and they pick up fine detail. - **Cones have a high threshold for light, low sensitivity to light.** - **6 million cones in our eye.** - **Color receptors:** - **Red or green (no-dichromat)** - **Blue or yellow (monochromat)** - **White or black** - **Fovea:** located in the center of the retina, is where cones are located. - **Rods:** are light sensitive so therefore possess a low threshold for light, located in the periphery of the retina. ## Gestalt Principles of Form Perception - **Cues we use to perceive depth:** - **Binocular Cue:** Retinal Disparity - **Monocular Cue:** **Relative Size** = closer is bigger, farther is smaller. - **Monocular Cue:** **Relative Height** = We tend to perceive the higher part of a scene as further away. - **Monocular Cue:** **Interposition** = Partial blocking of a more distant object with a nearer one. - **Monocular Cue:** **Relative Motion** = closer moves faster farther moves slower. - **Monocular Cue:** **Linear Perspective: ** as parallel lines converge, you are further. - **Monocular Cue:** **Light and Shadow** = Nearby objects reflect more light. ## Visual/Perceptual Constancies - **Visual/Perceptual/Perceptual Constancy:** this is the tendency to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting. - **Perceptual Constancy:** the belief that things remain relatively the same. ## Perceptual Set - **Perceptual Set:** This demonstrates that what we expect to see influences what we do see. - **Ex:** destinations seem further when you're tired. ## Classical Conditioning (US, UR, NS, CS, CR, Discrimination & Generalization) - **Learning:** a relatively permanent change in one's behavior because of experience in an environment or context. It is affected by nature but dependent on nurture. ### *Learning is based on associating one stimulus with another* - **Classical Conditioning:** Pavlov’s dogs or Watson and Baby Albert. - **Unconditioned Stimulus:** in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally triggers a response. - **Ex:** Thunder naturally makes us flinch. -**Unconditioned Response: ** in classical conditioning, the natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (us). - **Flinching from thunder.** - **Neutral Stimulus:** in classical conditioning a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. - **Ex:** rain doesn't make us flinch. - **Conditioned Stimulus:** in classical conditioning an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. - **Ex:** rain becomes associated with thunder and now rain makes us flinch too. - **Discrimination: **response is only given by that specific stimulus. - **Ex:** only rain makes us flinch, not sleet, snow, fog, etc. - **Generalization:** responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli. - **Ex:** we flinch to rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudy weather, etc. ## Operant Conditioning - **This type of conditioning focuses on behaviors not stimulus.** ### Thorndike's Law of Effect - **Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.** ### Reinforcement Theory - **The consequence of a behavior determines that behaviors frequency** ### Positive and Negative Reinforcements and Punishments - **Positive Reinforcement:** increasing behaviors by giving rewards - **Ex:** you get chocolate if you do your homework - **Negative Reinforcement:** increasing behavior by stopping or reducing negative stimuli - **Ex:** if you get good grades, you will no longer be grounded - **Positive Punishment:** decrease behavior by giving a consequence - **Ex:** If you throw a tantrum, you get a spanking - **Negative Punishment:** Decrease behavior by removing reward - **Ex:** taking away t.v. remote if child throws tantrum ### Schedules of Reinforcement - **Continuous Reinforcement:** rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. - **Immediate Reinforcement:** Reward given immediately after the desired behavior - **Fixed-ratio Schedule:** predictable number of behaviors to get consequence. - **Ex:** At Kohl's, after you buy 3 clothing items, you gets a discount... - **Variable-Ratio Schedule:** Unpredictable number of behaviors to get consequence - **Ex:** You buy lottery tickets to win a jackpot. You don't know how many lottery tickets it will take to win.... - **Fixed-Interval Schedule:** Predictable amount of time till consequence is given - **Ex;** You get your pay every month - **Variable Interval Schedule:** Unpredictable amount of time till reward is given - **Ex: **Fishing, you can sit there for hours trying to get a fish to take the bait... ### Negative Consequences of Using Punishment - **Punishment can lead to anxiety, low self-esteem, worsened behavior** - **Punishment focuses on bad behavior rather than good behavior** ### Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps - **Cognitive Maps:** mental representations are based on latent learning - **Latent Learning:** learning that does not immediately manifest itself in behavior but instead appears once reward is given ### Applications and Limitations of Operant Conditioning - **Operant Condition only accounts for extrinsic motivation not intrinsic** - **Parents should reinforce good behavior and ignore bad behavior** - **Latent learning is observational learning** ## Observational Learning: Latent and Implied - **Bobo doll study results and implications** - **Bandura's Bobo Doll:** This study indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. - Research shows that viewinging media violence is correlated with an increased expression of aggression. - Fortunately prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effect. - Ex: spending time with younger children leads to learning by observation. ### Biology Supporting Observational Learning - **Learning by observation begins in early life.** - **Distinctly human.** - **Mirror neurons.** ### Effects of Positive and Negative Role Models on Children's Behavior - **Humans are social learners.** - **Humans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both behaviors and emotions (emotion contagion).** - **Emotion contagion:** the experience of an emotion seems to spread to those around us. - **Sometimes humans even over imitate, copying adult behaviors without the need for a function or reward.** ## Memory Stores and Their Relative Sizes and Durations - **This allows us to learn, navigate easily, use language, etc. (memory).** - **Shapes our identity: it keeps record of our past and helps us plan and predict for the future.** - **Memory can be potentially disastrous when it goes wrong in terms of amnesia, implanted memories.** - **Linked to PTSD.** ### Encoding - **How we encode from sensory to short-term memory (+ related effects & limitations)** - **Information has to be input by sensory memory then encoded into working memory then encoded and stores in long term memory.** - **We encode from short-term into long-term memory and processing** ### How to Encode Memory: - **Sensory memory:** have to do a conscious or unconscious (excepting) - **To encode, you have lasts: 1/4 of a second** - **Short term memory:** lasts: 30 seconds - **To encode, you have to work** - **How to improve holding memory you have to pay attention to important or novel stimuli** - **Working memory can hold up to 5-9 things** - **It requires conscious effort and repetition** - **Acoustic, through rehearsal or forful processing spacing effects also help** - **It requires ** ### Types of Info We Encode - **Visuals (iconic) (body movements)** - **Auditory (echoic) (sounds)** - **Kinesthetic (body movements)** - **Semantic encoding, auditory encoding, etc. & associated memory tips (e.g., spacing effects, serial position effect, mnemonics, etc.)** - **Serial/Position effect: reasoning behind remembering the first thing we heard and last** ### Storage (how and not infrequently: small amount of information that is processed automatically/unconsciously) - **Space-Time Frequency** - **Memories are stored in a network with different physical context emotional context (state-dependent or mood congruent)** ### Contextual Effects that Help You With Retrieval - **Physical context emotional context (state-dependent or mood-congruent)** - **Encoding failure**: if your are unable to retrieve the information because you never paid attention - **Storage Decay:** unable to retrieve information because you never practiced the information - **Interference:** - **Proactive interference:** past memories messing up present learning - **Retroactive Interference:** present information messing up past memories ## Theories of Forgetting -**Change blindness:** if we don't notice a cashier switch at the register because we are too busy focusing on our groceries - **Inattentional Blindness:** If we are counting the stars in the sky and don't notice a dancing bare walking by. ## Memory Construction (i.e., imagination effects, source amnesia, implanted memories) - **Retrograde Amnesia:** losing memories of your life before an accident after it happens - **Anterograde Amnesia:** being unable to encode to encode new information, clive wearing - **Dissociative Amnesia/Fugue:** Forgetting a portion of your time in your life. - **Misinformation effect:** incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. ## What Interventions Do Authorities Use To Decrease Imagination Effects and Point To The Truth Given Memory Is Inaccurate? - **Occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories.** - **Prevention** - **Set the scene.** - **Tell what happened.** - **Follow-up questions without any colorful language/adverbs/adjectives.** ## Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) - Tendency to overestimate dispositional impact and underestimate situational impact when analyzing behavior *vice versa for ourselves* - **If outcome is negative FAE increases.** - **If outcome is positive FAE decreases.** - **Blaming yourself for something that is out of your control.** - **We are susceptible to overconfidence, confirmation bias, and hindsight bias.** ### EXAMPLE - Ellie got a higher score than you on an essay you tell yourself the only reason that happened was that the teacher likes her more, rather than her capability - **Why? = We attribute her success to her environment and not giving herself credit.** ## Attitude - **Belief component which increases the likelihood of particular responses to situations attitudes are opinions, feelings, and beliefs about a person, concept, or group.** - *attitude shapes behavior, but behavior also shapes attitude* ### Stanford Prison Experiment - **Famous study that demonstrates how actions such as role-playing affect attitudes** - **Conducted by Philip Zimbardo** - **where college students assigned to play the roles of guards and prisoners in a simulated prison environment rapidly adopted the attitudes and behaviors associated with their assigned roles, highlighting the powerful influence of social situations on behavior and attitudes.** ### Behavior Shaping Attitudes - **Cooperation with one another can lead to liking.** - **Foot in the door phenomenon:** you complete a small request and eventually, you are willing to complete a larger request as your attitude towards it has been slowly made complacent. - **Role Playing:** Heath Ledger was just acting like the Joker but eventually, those thoughts he was pretending to have became his own (mimic behavior) ### Why Do They Affect Each Other? - **It's because we need our attitudes and behaviors to coincide, we need there to be no tension between them** - **EXAMPLE:** If you are a racist but your best friend is someone of color. There is tension between attitude and behavior and it needs to be alleviated. ### Cognitive Dissonance - **Tension that is created when attitudes and actions conflict (theory on why people would change their attitude to match their behavior).** - **SOLUTION:** by either changing our behavior (easy) or changing our attitude (hard). ### Which is Easier To Change? - **It depends on the situation** - **EXAMPLE:** You smoke but you think smoking is wrong. Then you convince yourself that it's not that bad. In this case, changing your attitude was easier. ## Social Facilitation - **Improved performance in the presence of others. *depends on the difficulty and familiarity or unfamiliarity of the task*** - **Familiar task:** better performance with others (more likely to improve in performance) - **EXAMPLE:** stacking bricks is easier to do with other people helping - **Unfamiliar task:** better performance when doing by yourself. - **EXAMPLE:** trying to solve a Rubix cube is easier to do on your own ## Social Loafing - **Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort *Opposite of social facilitation*** - **Deindividuation** - loss of self-awareness and self-restraint, anonymity. - **Diffusion of Responsibility** - no sense of individual accountability. - **Bystander Effect is an example.** - **EXAMPLE:** No one helped Erin when she was stabbed in front of more than 100 people. - Why? = everyone thought someone else would step up since there were so many people there. ## Conformity (Old Ways) - **To agree with a group even if you may disagree personally** - **Normative Social Influence:** influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. - **EXAMPLE:** All of your friends are drinking and then they offer you a drink and even though you hate alcohol, you accept it. - **Why?** = you want to be accepted, peer pressure is an example of NSI. - **Informative Social Influence:** believing others hold better opinions and know better, you conform to gain knowledge. - **EXAMPLE:** your chief police officer mistreats a suspect, yet, you stay quiet and observe since you look up to him as your senior. - **Why?** = he's your senior officer and so he must know better. ### Conditions that INCREASE Conformity - **Insecurity.** - **3+ people.** - **Group anonymity.** - **Desire for group appeal/status.** - **No prior commitment.** - **Culture** ## Group Polarization - **Enhancement of attitudes through discussion.** - **EXAMPLE:** Jefferson was an avid vegan and has always felt uncomfortable around people who eat meat. After joining a vegan activist group, he is now willing to go as far as to attack others if they eat meat. - Why is that? = Group polarization. Our attitudes become extreme when we surround ourselves with people who agree. ## Groupthink - **You agree for the sake of group harmony even if you may hold a different more realistic opinion.** ### Avoid Groupthink: - **Think of alternative courses of action.** - **Remove authoritative/influential members until later.** - **Encourage disagreement.** - **Get opinions from others outside of the group.** ## Blind Obedience - **Following orders even when you might disagree or feel uncomfortable doing so.** ### Effects - **Proximity of authority.** - **Credibility of authority.** - **No role models of defiance.** - **Depersonalization of the person being harmed.** ## Prejudice - **Prejudice is an often negative attitude toward an out-group** ### Components of Prejudice - **Conscious and Unconscious beliefs.** - **Emotions.** - **Predisposition to act.** - **In-group:** a group to which one belongs and identifies. - **Out-group:** a group to which one does not belong or identify. ## Inaccurate? - **Based on stereotypes which are overgeneralizations.** - **Fundamental Attribution Error.** ## How Do We Combat Prejudice? - **Familiarity** - **Cooperation (GRIT, Superordinate goals, Language)** - **G:** growth - **R:** resilience - **I:** instinct - **T:** tenacity - **Education.** ## Guidelines for Abnormality - **Pathological** = means outside of normal, outside of the average experience. - **Persistent:** think in terms of time/time period. - **EXAMPLE:** You have been depressed and having suicidal thoughts constantly for the past three months. - **Pervasive:** has to do with areas of ones life. - **EXAMPLE:** Due to her cerebral palsy, Lima Beam is unable to communicate, move around, or even hang out with friends sometimes. (it is affecting multiple aspects of Ms. Beam's life) - **Deviant:** outside of the norm - **EXAMPLE:** Jerry is attracted to backpacks. (very outside of normal behavior) - **Distressing:** great personal distress or towards others - **EXAMPLE:** if you are showering 100 times a day because you always feel unclean. - **Dysfunctional:** preventing things from getting done, not getting something done because of them - **EXAMPLE:** You are constantly hyperactive. You can't focus in class and can't seem to control your thoughts. (This is getting in your life and preventing you from learning.) - **Generalized Anxiety Disorder:** You have uncontrollable tenseness and apprehension that is persistent. It follows you everywhere you go. - **Persistence Rate** = 6 months - ***Can't identify exact causes of anxiety and you can't avoid it if you have GAD*** ## Panic Disorder - **You have minute long episode of intense anxiety. You feel suffocated and like the world is falling on you.** - **Acute Disorder** = is short lived and intense (an example is panic disorder) ## Phobia - **You have an irrational fear of flies. You refuse to go out at all in the summer and some days you don't even feel safe in your own house because a fly may be there.** - **Percent of Population:** 10% has a phobia. - **Most common:** Women are 2x more likely to have a phobia than men. ## Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - **You constantly think that the stove is still on and will burn your house down. These thoughts are repetitive and intrusive and won't disappear unless you check the stove. On a normal day, you typically check the stove 200 times.** - **Obsessions:** The intrusive repetitive thoughts about the stove. - **Compulsion:** Checking the stove repeatedly to feel better (repeated behaviors to reduce anxiety for people who suffer from OCD) - *Most common in teens and young adults* - In younger ages (6-15) it is more common in men - In early adulthood, it's equal in men and women ## PTSD - **Jerry is a war veteran. He constantly has flashbacks of the war. If he hears a noise, he immediately ducks for cover thinking it is a bomb. He avoids going out because he doesn't feel safe around others anymore. He cannot sleep or eat recently.** - **Re-experiencing:** he has those flashbacks from the war he experienced - **Avoidance:** he doesn't go outside because he doesn't feel safe around anyone. - **Physical arousal:** he can't sleep and he overreacts to simple noises by ducking for cover. ## Major Depressive Disorder - **Ally has a depressed mood and no longer enjoys gold, her favorite hobby of all time.** ## Depressed Mood - As stated. ## Anhedonia - She doesn't find pleasure in gold anymore. - **Lasts:** two weeks - **More likely:** females. - **Suicide is more likely:** men are twice as likely ## Bipolar Disorder - **Manic episodes** ## The Negative Explanatory Cycle - **Stable (persistent, it will always be like this).** - **Global (pervasive, everything is ruined).** - **Internal (It's my fault).** ## Depression - **The Positive Coping Response** - **Temporary (small setback, things will be fine soon).** - **Specific (Can fix what's wrong, its just this certain aspect).** - **External (Not my fault, bad situation).** - **Success.** ## Personality Disorders - **Stable and enduring behavior patterns that disrupt function.** - **Narcissistic Personality Disorder:** Turtwig believes he rules the world and he thinks he deserves everything. He treats people poorly but since it makes him happy, he thinks its alright. As soon as someone says he's wrong Turtwig can't handle it and gets highly defensive. - **Exaggerated Sense of Grandiose:** he thinks he rules the world - **Selfishness, lack of remorse, and sense of entitlement:** he hurts people because it makes him feel good and thinks it's alright - **Overly sensitive to criticism:** he gets highly defensive when someone says he's wrong. - **Antisocial Personality Disorder:** Susan enjoys hurting others kids to see their reaction. She feels no attachment to her mom or dad. - **Lack of Conscience for doing wrong:** Susan enjoys hurting others - **Lack of Recognition of family/friendships:** Susan has no attachment to her parents. ## Dissociative Disorders - **Conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings** - **Dissociative Identity Disorder: **presence of 2+ distinct personalities or identities, gaps in memory for important info. - **EXAMPLE:** Ugway has gaps in his memory. His friends say he told them his name was Ally and he was acting and dressed completely differently the last time they saw him. He often has this happen to him but he never has any recollection. - **Criticisms:** diagnosis increased in the late 20th century, DID not found in other countries, can be role-playing from therapist suggestion, learned response - **Cause:** a traumatic event, we dissociate to cope ## Schizophrenia - **Split